Michael Schulz
Background: The Arab League and a Changing Middle East
- The Arab League was formed for two reasons:
o It was a response to Zionism.
o It was a response to the creation of independent Arab states in the 1920s.
- Dramatic changes occurred in the Middle East in the 1950s.
o There were many coups and regime changes.
o Ethnic divisions became increasingly important.
o There was a build-up of military capacity (The military was the only social space with the prospect of mobility.)
o “Weak” states
o Internal conflict
- There were two reasons Arab unity:
o To unite under a single Arab state, and
o To fight against Zionism.
- The Cold War
o USSR was allied with radical Arab states including Syria and the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO).
o In the 1960s, the US formed an alliance with Israel.
o In the 1950s, West Germany was helping Israel and Israel received military support from the USSR.
- Wars in 1956 and 1967 dramatically changed the map and the conflict.
- Israel and the Arab states held irreconcilable positions from 1967-1973.
- In 1973 there was a shift in the conflict dynamic.
o Political solutions were now a possibility.
o Even the PLO was willing to engage in (limited) political negotiations.
- In 1972, Sadat threw out military advisors from the USSR signaling to the West that Egypt might be ready for negotiations.
The Camp David Accords (1978-1979)
- As a result of the accords, Israel returns the Sinai Desert to Egypt in exchange for peace/ recognition.
- An all out war becomes less likely between Israel and the Arab states.
- During the accords, Israel was confronted with the Palestinian refugee dilemma.
- Arab states were very angry with Egypt for its participation in the accords and Egypt was banned from the Arab League for 10 years.
- The most tricky issue: Israeli Prime Minister Begin had sworn an oath to God that he would not give up any territory to the Arabs.
- Carter persuaded Begin to allow the Knesset to vote about the issue.
- Carter was instrumental in the success of the accords.
Iran
- Iran also impacted the dynamics of the conflict.
- In 1979, Iran experienced revolution and the overthrow of the Shah.
- Iran was a cornerstone of US foreign policy after World War II.
- US and Israel had supported the ousted Shah.
Iraq
- The revolution in Iran threatened to spread to Iraq.
- Iran and Iraq went to war in 1980 over a border dispute.
o Saddam Hussein saw an opportunity to claim territory after the Islamic Revolution.
o Iraq was supplied and supported by the USSR, other Arab states, and the US.
o Iran was supplied and supported by North Korea, China, and Israel.
o The war resulted in 1.5 million casualties.
o An armistice was signed in 1988.
Palestine
- In 1967, the PLO was formed under the leadership of Yasser Arafat.
- The PLO was headquartered in Jordan until 1970. In October 1970, the PLO was expelled after it was viewed as a state within a state by the leadership of Jordan.
- After 1970, the PLO used Lebanon as a base.
- The PLO experienced internal conflict in 1983 and was split with Arafat and others moving to Tunis.
- In 1987, the first Palestinian Intifada (uprising) break out.
Key Questions
- How did the PLO and Israel become involved in the Lebanese civil war?
- What were the effects of the Lebanese civil war for the Arab-Israeli conflict?
- How does the emergence of Hezbollah alter PLO-Israeli relations?
- What was the intifada and what were its effects on the Arab-Israeli conflict?
Lebanon
- Lebanon did not attack Israel in 1948.
- Lebanon had problems with Syria who considered Lebanon as a part of Greater Syria.
- Lebanon was traditionally a refuge for Christians and others minorities who had been persecuted by Muslims.
- Tensions erupted briefly in the 1950s and dramatically in the 1970s.
- In 1975, civil war broke out.
o The PLO and Syria were involved.
- The PLO attacked Israel from southern Lebanon.
- In response to PLO attacks from across the Lebanese border, Israel participates in the civil war in support of the Christian militias with the added intent of destroying PLO bases.
- In response, a UN peacekeeping force is deployed but it is unsuccessful at restoring order.
Operation Peace for Galilee
- Israel invades Lebanon in June 1982 with four strategic goals:
o Kick out the PLO
o Scare the Syrians
o Create a separate peace agreement with the Christian president of Lebanon.
o Scare the Palestinians in Gaza and the West Bank.
- Israel was deeply divided over this war.
o According to Israeli myth, Israel had never before initiated a conflict.
o Demonstrations took place throughout Israel.
- Israel considered the PLO as a terrorist organization at this time.
- There was no recognition on each side.
- Fatah had shifted so much that it was now considering a two state solution.
- Links between Israel and the US tightened.
- Eventually the PLO withdrew from Lebanon and reestablished itself in Tunis, Tunisia.
Sabra and Shatila
- Lebanese-Christian militias slaughtered approximately 2,000 Palestinian civilians in the refugee camps of Sabra and Shatila in Southern Lebanon.
o The attacks were initiated in response to an assassination of a Lebanese leader in Lebanon by the PLO.
o The IDF shouldered most of the blame for the slaughter and Ariel Sharon who was then commander of the IDF forces in Southern Lebanon was found morally responsible.
o Sharon was forced to resign over the incident.
- As a result of the massacre, the PLO was kicked out of Lebanon, Syria was scared, and internal divisions emerged in the PLO.
- Israel seemed victorious in its military operation in Lebanon until the Sabra and Shatila massacres when everything went wrong.
o International opinion turned against Israel.
o Hezbollah emerges as a new player and initiates devastating suicide-bomb attacks.
o 1/10th of the Israeli population began protesting in the streets of Israel.
- A unity government was established in Israel in 1984 in response to an election without a clear winner.
- It was generally agreed that Lebanon was a disaster.
How does the emergence of Hezbollah alter PLO-Israeli relations?
- Militant PLO members form Hezbollah, a more violent terrorist organization than the PLO.
- Arafat’s authority is reduced by distance--- he is now in Tunisia--- and competition.
- Arafat’s hand is forced: He must decide whether to ally with the more violent elements of the PLO or draw the olive branch closer.
- Arafat sought to repair breaks between PLO factions and was largely successful by spring 1987.
Peace Proposals
- In 1981, Reagan proposes limited autonomy for residents of the West Bank and Gaza.
- Saudi Arabia also offers a solution.
The First Intifada
- The First Intifada begins in December 1987.
- It is a spontaneous revolt.
- The Intifada was just what Arafat needed thus he claimed responsibility even though he was not responsible.
- Due to the Intifada, Arafat gained legitimacy in the Arab world again.
- The Intifada had a big impact on Israeli society in general and tourism in particular as tourists were now reluctant to visit the Holy Land.
- This was the first time a majority in Israeli society were willing to consider giving back the occupied territories.
- Israel recognized Arafat as the representative of the Palestinian people.
- A law was passed in Israel forbidding Israelis from speaking to the PLO thus frustrating negotiations.
- However, at this time, people from both sides started talking about solutions. Even high ranking military officers became involved.
- Despite the fact that at this time, many Palestinians viewed the PLO as their sole representative, Hamas was formed and challenged secular Palestinian nationalism.
Progression of the Intifada
- Palestinians engaged in protests, strikes, non-payment of taxes, and refusal to use identity documents.
- While the Intifada was largely non-violent, images of stone throwing youths became emblematic.
- PLO took over the movement, escalating violence to incidents involving firearms.
- By 1991, 697 Palestinians had been killed including 78 under the age of 14.
Madrid Conference, 1991
- This conference was both bilateral and multilateral.
- Unfortunately, the conference was unsuccessful, ending in deadlock.
- The Israeli Prime Minister did not want any members of the PLO to participate.
- The idea of Gaza first emerged. That is, Israel should first withdraw from the Gaza Strip.
- Jordan and Israel immediately agreed on a Declaration of Principles but Jordan could not sign anything until Syria had signed an agreement and Syria could not sign anything until the Palestinians had signed an agreement. Thus, deadlock.
- Meanwhile, Israeli society was changing due to immigration from the former Soviet Union.
- President Bush Sr. threatens to halt aid to Israel if settlements continue.
No comments:
Post a Comment