Lecture #11: "Diaspora"
Lisa Åkesson, Social Anthropology
See power point entitled, "Diaspora" at http://kursportal.student.gu.se/inst/S2GLS%7C_%7CNONE/GS2121au09/anslagstavla/index.php
Tuesday, September 29, 2009
Monday, September 28, 2009
"Transnational Migration"
Lecture #10: "Transnational Migration"
Lisa Åkesson, Social Anthropology
See power point entitled, "Transnational Migration" at http://kursportal.student.gu.se/inst/S2GLS%7C_%7CNONE/GS2121au09/anslagstavla/index.php
Lisa Åkesson, Social Anthropology
See power point entitled, "Transnational Migration" at http://kursportal.student.gu.se/inst/S2GLS%7C_%7CNONE/GS2121au09/anslagstavla/index.php
Wednesday, September 23, 2009
"International Law and Human Rights"
Lecture #9: "International Law and Human Rights"
Brian Palmer, University of Uppsala, Social Anthropolgy
Lecture Abstract (copied from the Course Guide):
During the last 60 years, Human Rights have developed within the broader discourse of international Law as a system of common global norms, rules, laws and regulations. This process has been far from easy and several major philosophical debates have been fought over the years (e.g. economic, social and cultural vs. civil and political rights, individual vs. collective rights, universalism vs. relativism). The lecture aims to explore Human Rights and its relation to International Law while discussing HR as a process of developing global norms. A framework for analysis will be applied that rests on the assumption that HR can be seen as an interdisciplinary
field of study including ethics, politics and law.
Images of Brutality
- Professor Palmer showed the audience four images of brutality including paintings by Francisco Goya and Pablo Picasso and a photograph by photojournalist, James Nachtwey.
- The bleak history behind these images probably explains why you are enrolled in this program.
- Everyone here wants to say no to brutality.
- We want to answer the question: How is it that we live in a world of other peoples’ suffering?
- French philosopher, Voltaire, tried to explain what it is like to live in a world of other peoples’ suffering when he reflected on a massive earthquake in Lisbon. Voltaire believed that it was difficult to care. He wrote, “Lisbon lies in ruins and here, in Paris, we dance.”
- American author and political activist, Susan Sontag, wrote that what Voltaire describes is a frustration shared by all when faced with the simultaneity of wildly contrasting human fates.
- Our discussion of human rights is a way of engaging with a world of brutality and suffering.
- I (Brian Palmer) join you in this endeavor as a fellow concerned citizen.
- However, I (Brian Palmer) make a confession. I don’t believe that a language of rights is necessarily the best way to capture what is sacred in human beings.
A Language of Rights
- French philosopher, Simone Weil who died in 1943 said that the notion of rights “has a commercial flavor.” “Rights evoke a latent war.” “One cannot imagine St Francis of Assisi talking about rights.”
- What is the alternative?
o The alternative may be a language of caring.
o This alternative would be essentially feminine in contrast to the inherently masculine language of rights.
Conceptions of Rights
- Elaine Scarry of Harvard University contends that we injure others because we have difficulty imaging others.
o We fail to know others.
o This idiom is not incompatible with human rights.
- Lynn Hunt, an American historian and author of Inventing Human Rights: A History, argues that the spread of empathy provided nourishment to the great strides in human rights in the late 1700s. The key here is empathy or learning to appreciate the reality of others.
- Peter Singer, an Australian philosopher, says that there is no place for human rights in his utilitarian philosophy but he is still willing to use the term.
- A vocabulary of human rights is practical in many situations.
- Micheline Ishay, author of The History of Human Rights (2003), underscores the contributions made by the world’s religious and ethical traditions to the development of human rights. She believes that one sees these contributions in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/b1udhr.htm
- The declaration was adopted on December 10, 1948 in Paris, France.
- The declaration pulled together a conception of rights from the world’s religions and translated them into secular language.
- According to Michael Ignatieff , the declaration provided international legal recognition of the rights of individuals for the first time.
- French scholar, Rene Cassin, argued that there are three generations of rights present in the declaration: liberty, equality and solidarity.
o Liberty: Liberty is represented in Articles 3-19. Conceptions of liberty emerged from struggles beginning in the time of Enlightenment.
o Equality: Equality is represented in Articles 20-26. Questions of equality emerged from the Industrial Revolution.
o Solidarity: Solidarity is represented in Articles 27-28. These social and cultural rights began emerging in the late 1800s as well as the colonial and post-colonial periods.
1st Generation Rights, Liberty
- Liberty is represented in core, political, democratic rights
- Conceptions of these rights emerged during the Enlightenment (late 1600s- 1789)
- The birth of a secular and universalistic way of thinking began with the Reformation and the Peace of Westphalia--- this was the first crucial period.
- The second crucial period centered around the English Civil Wars and the Commonwealth period.
- The third crucial period took place during the American Revolution (1775-1783).
- The fourth crucial period occurred during the French Revolution (1789-1799).
- These periods led to the development of a range of political rights.
- Throughout these periods, many groups were still excluded. Colonized people, women, Jews, slaves, other nationalities, etc. were not allowed to enjoy these political rights.
- Rights developed at this time are often referred to as classically liberal rights.
- Notions of political rights were expanded in the period after World War I as the League of Nations was founded.
o The League of Nations recognized inequality between states.
o The League also sought to counter-balance that inequality.
- The foundation of international labor organizations further helped to expand notions of political rights.
- The Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 also played a role.
o The Lenin period was marked by internationalism and concern with the mechanisms of international rights
o The Soviet constitution of 1936 guaranteed an astonishing array of political rights although these rights were mostly non-existent in practice.
- Key Questions:
o What is the role of the state?
o Can citizens rely on states to guard their rights?
o What is the role of markets?
o Is there such a thing as a just war?
2nd Generation Rights, Equality
- This generation of rights is not concerned with political oppression but the failure of the state to provide systems for adequate economic sustenance.
- Conceptions of equality were formed with contributions for social, communist and labor movements—although these movements are often not given enough credit.
- According to Ishay, while liberals maintained their pre-occuption with liberty, champions of labor began to question whether that liberty was hollow without equality.
- These rights began to emerge as people asked broader questions about who is included in the political process.
- Both Robert Owen and Karl Marx called for the provision of free education for children.
- Members of the labor movement called for limited working hours, protections for work-related illnesses and injuries, freedom of association and protection for women and children.
- Garrison Keillor explained the philosophy behind equality and the general welfare state when he said, “The gains in life come slowly…the losses suddenly.”
3rd Generation Rights, Solidarity
- This generation of rights deals with cultural rights and the right to national self-determination.
- Conceptions of these rights were present in Europe in the late 1800s
- These rights were given increased importance by Woodrow Wilson and the League of Nations.
- These rights helped to define the concept of ethnic groups.
- These rights are tied to colonization.
- During World War II, the U.S. had no real colonies on the scale of many European powers. This gave President Franklin Roosevelt the chance to be more critical of colonization. The British, however, were not equally enthusiastic.
- Strides towards solidarity were made when the initial proposals for the formation of the United Nations were greeted with protest by many who felt it overlooked colonialism and human rights. These protestors won and plans for the United Nations were rewritten to include a strong language of human rights. The United Nations, however, left the enforcement of human rights to individual member states.
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Question of Universality
www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/b3ccpr.htm
- This covenant was written in 1966.
- It guarantees the right to self-determination.
- Ishay expresses skepticism when she asks, who should be favored when claims to self-determination conflict?
- Thus we must ask ourselves, does the language of universal human rights build on real commonalities?
- Swedish philosopher and author of Common Values, Sissela Bok, argues that people in all parts of the world share at least some values in common especially the rejection of force and fraud which are commonly considered liberal values.
What are we to do?
- American linguist and philosopher, Noam Chomsky, tried to define the responsibilities of the writer in his essay, “Writers and Intellectual Responsibility.”
o He wrote that it is a responsibility to tell the truth about matters of human significance.
o This is, essentially, the job description of those enrolled in this masters program.
- Lithuanian philosopher, Emmanuel Levinas, states that humans have “infinite responsibility but limited capacity.”
- The questions remains, how do we live with that contradiction?
Brian Palmer, University of Uppsala, Social Anthropolgy
Lecture Abstract (copied from the Course Guide):
During the last 60 years, Human Rights have developed within the broader discourse of international Law as a system of common global norms, rules, laws and regulations. This process has been far from easy and several major philosophical debates have been fought over the years (e.g. economic, social and cultural vs. civil and political rights, individual vs. collective rights, universalism vs. relativism). The lecture aims to explore Human Rights and its relation to International Law while discussing HR as a process of developing global norms. A framework for analysis will be applied that rests on the assumption that HR can be seen as an interdisciplinary
field of study including ethics, politics and law.
Images of Brutality
- Professor Palmer showed the audience four images of brutality including paintings by Francisco Goya and Pablo Picasso and a photograph by photojournalist, James Nachtwey.
- The bleak history behind these images probably explains why you are enrolled in this program.
- Everyone here wants to say no to brutality.
- We want to answer the question: How is it that we live in a world of other peoples’ suffering?
- French philosopher, Voltaire, tried to explain what it is like to live in a world of other peoples’ suffering when he reflected on a massive earthquake in Lisbon. Voltaire believed that it was difficult to care. He wrote, “Lisbon lies in ruins and here, in Paris, we dance.”
- American author and political activist, Susan Sontag, wrote that what Voltaire describes is a frustration shared by all when faced with the simultaneity of wildly contrasting human fates.
- Our discussion of human rights is a way of engaging with a world of brutality and suffering.
- I (Brian Palmer) join you in this endeavor as a fellow concerned citizen.
- However, I (Brian Palmer) make a confession. I don’t believe that a language of rights is necessarily the best way to capture what is sacred in human beings.
A Language of Rights
- French philosopher, Simone Weil who died in 1943 said that the notion of rights “has a commercial flavor.” “Rights evoke a latent war.” “One cannot imagine St Francis of Assisi talking about rights.”
- What is the alternative?
o The alternative may be a language of caring.
o This alternative would be essentially feminine in contrast to the inherently masculine language of rights.
Conceptions of Rights
- Elaine Scarry of Harvard University contends that we injure others because we have difficulty imaging others.
o We fail to know others.
o This idiom is not incompatible with human rights.
- Lynn Hunt, an American historian and author of Inventing Human Rights: A History, argues that the spread of empathy provided nourishment to the great strides in human rights in the late 1700s. The key here is empathy or learning to appreciate the reality of others.
- Peter Singer, an Australian philosopher, says that there is no place for human rights in his utilitarian philosophy but he is still willing to use the term.
- A vocabulary of human rights is practical in many situations.
- Micheline Ishay, author of The History of Human Rights (2003), underscores the contributions made by the world’s religious and ethical traditions to the development of human rights. She believes that one sees these contributions in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/b1udhr.htm
- The declaration was adopted on December 10, 1948 in Paris, France.
- The declaration pulled together a conception of rights from the world’s religions and translated them into secular language.
- According to Michael Ignatieff , the declaration provided international legal recognition of the rights of individuals for the first time.
- French scholar, Rene Cassin, argued that there are three generations of rights present in the declaration: liberty, equality and solidarity.
o Liberty: Liberty is represented in Articles 3-19. Conceptions of liberty emerged from struggles beginning in the time of Enlightenment.
o Equality: Equality is represented in Articles 20-26. Questions of equality emerged from the Industrial Revolution.
o Solidarity: Solidarity is represented in Articles 27-28. These social and cultural rights began emerging in the late 1800s as well as the colonial and post-colonial periods.
1st Generation Rights, Liberty
- Liberty is represented in core, political, democratic rights
- Conceptions of these rights emerged during the Enlightenment (late 1600s- 1789)
- The birth of a secular and universalistic way of thinking began with the Reformation and the Peace of Westphalia--- this was the first crucial period.
- The second crucial period centered around the English Civil Wars and the Commonwealth period.
- The third crucial period took place during the American Revolution (1775-1783).
- The fourth crucial period occurred during the French Revolution (1789-1799).
- These periods led to the development of a range of political rights.
- Throughout these periods, many groups were still excluded. Colonized people, women, Jews, slaves, other nationalities, etc. were not allowed to enjoy these political rights.
- Rights developed at this time are often referred to as classically liberal rights.
- Notions of political rights were expanded in the period after World War I as the League of Nations was founded.
o The League of Nations recognized inequality between states.
o The League also sought to counter-balance that inequality.
- The foundation of international labor organizations further helped to expand notions of political rights.
- The Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 also played a role.
o The Lenin period was marked by internationalism and concern with the mechanisms of international rights
o The Soviet constitution of 1936 guaranteed an astonishing array of political rights although these rights were mostly non-existent in practice.
- Key Questions:
o What is the role of the state?
o Can citizens rely on states to guard their rights?
o What is the role of markets?
o Is there such a thing as a just war?
2nd Generation Rights, Equality
- This generation of rights is not concerned with political oppression but the failure of the state to provide systems for adequate economic sustenance.
- Conceptions of equality were formed with contributions for social, communist and labor movements—although these movements are often not given enough credit.
- According to Ishay, while liberals maintained their pre-occuption with liberty, champions of labor began to question whether that liberty was hollow without equality.
- These rights began to emerge as people asked broader questions about who is included in the political process.
- Both Robert Owen and Karl Marx called for the provision of free education for children.
- Members of the labor movement called for limited working hours, protections for work-related illnesses and injuries, freedom of association and protection for women and children.
- Garrison Keillor explained the philosophy behind equality and the general welfare state when he said, “The gains in life come slowly…the losses suddenly.”
3rd Generation Rights, Solidarity
- This generation of rights deals with cultural rights and the right to national self-determination.
- Conceptions of these rights were present in Europe in the late 1800s
- These rights were given increased importance by Woodrow Wilson and the League of Nations.
- These rights helped to define the concept of ethnic groups.
- These rights are tied to colonization.
- During World War II, the U.S. had no real colonies on the scale of many European powers. This gave President Franklin Roosevelt the chance to be more critical of colonization. The British, however, were not equally enthusiastic.
- Strides towards solidarity were made when the initial proposals for the formation of the United Nations were greeted with protest by many who felt it overlooked colonialism and human rights. These protestors won and plans for the United Nations were rewritten to include a strong language of human rights. The United Nations, however, left the enforcement of human rights to individual member states.
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Question of Universality
www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/b3ccpr.htm
- This covenant was written in 1966.
- It guarantees the right to self-determination.
- Ishay expresses skepticism when she asks, who should be favored when claims to self-determination conflict?
- Thus we must ask ourselves, does the language of universal human rights build on real commonalities?
- Swedish philosopher and author of Common Values, Sissela Bok, argues that people in all parts of the world share at least some values in common especially the rejection of force and fraud which are commonly considered liberal values.
What are we to do?
- American linguist and philosopher, Noam Chomsky, tried to define the responsibilities of the writer in his essay, “Writers and Intellectual Responsibility.”
o He wrote that it is a responsibility to tell the truth about matters of human significance.
o This is, essentially, the job description of those enrolled in this masters program.
- Lithuanian philosopher, Emmanuel Levinas, states that humans have “infinite responsibility but limited capacity.”
- The questions remains, how do we live with that contradiction?
Tuesday, September 22, 2009
“Cultural Homogenization and Commodification”
Lecture #8: “Cultural Homogenization and Commodification”
Staffan Appelgren
Seminar Papers- Graded seminar papers will be returned tomorrow, September 23. In the future, make sure to read all of the articles before you decide what to write about. Also, stick to the articles; include all relevant articles and arguments; keep quotations to a minimum.
The Phenomenon of Language
- Languages with a limited number of speakers are disappearing.
- There are approximately 6,000 languages in existence today but 4% of these languages are spoken by 96% of the world’s population.
- 1,500 languages are spoken by less than 1,000 people.
- Every two weeks, a language disappears.
- By 2050, approximately 3,000 languages will remain.
- One of the causes of the eradication of minority languages in bilingualism.
Culture
- Can we say the same thing about cultures; are they also disappearing?
- Newspapers feature stories about dying languages, why don’t they discuss dying cultures?
- The above questions are difficult to answer because culture, unlike language, is difficult to delimit.
- What counts as language is a political decision. Culture, however, is a process of creating meaning.
- One can argue that anthropologists have departed from the idea of humans as meaning creating and seeking.
- Of course, there is an evolving understanding of what a culture is and how it is created.
Definitions of Culture
- Some contend that culture results from artistic production such as the production of books, films, dance, etc.
o This definition is not often discussed in social science contexts.
o We will not discuss this definition during today’s lecture.
- Culture can also be described as coming from objects this is also known as material culture.
o Counter-argument: We ascribe meaning to these objects; they don’t have inherent meaning.
o This definition is similar to Susan Wright’s ideas and arguments.
- One can also define culture as politicized/ commodified through the construction of identity.
o This is derived from symbols, clothes, traditions, etc.
o This definition is often related to in-group similarities.
o This definition is also similar to Susan Wright’s ideas and arguments.
- Finally, culture can be defined as the process of creating meaning.
o This is the definition most often used by anthropologists.
o This definition is process oriented.
o According to this definition, culture is not what you have; it’s what you do.
The Meanings of Culture (Susan Wright)
- Old: Culture is bounded, defined, unchanging, has an underlying system of meanings and is identical.
- New: Culture is an active process with various definitions. It is understood differently by different positioned people. Cultural sites are not bounded. Concept formation is historically specific.
- According to Appelgren, what really goes on in everyday life is “meaning creation.”
- The old understanding of static culture often reappears, especially in identity politics, but is easily questioned.
- An example of the application of the old understanding occurs in Sweden when culture is linked to crime. The majority population asserts that honor-related violence is related to “immigrant culture.” However, when domestic violence occurs in a “Swedish” household it is not related to Swedish culture.
- In other words, old understandings of culture are often invoked to explain peoples’ actions.
Globalization with Agency
- According to Appelgren, it is simply not true that the local only reacts to global forces.
- Agency does exist.
Questions about Cultural Homogenization
- Are we condemned to conformity?
- Are there prospects for difference?
- If yes, what kinds of differences are possible?
- The answers to these questions depend on what kind of culture we are talking about.
- In other words, what kind of culture is reflected by global brands like McDonald’s and Coco Cola?
Cultural Imperialism
- There are unequal flows in a globalized world.
- Cultural imperialism is often associated with Westernization.
- Globalization as cultural imperialism is seen as an extension of colonialism, domination and oppression.
- It is a “soft power” but one with profound implications for individuals.
- The result of cultural imperialism is that local cultures become extinct and replaced by Western culture.
- According to John Tomlinson…
o Cultural imperialism is much more than Westernization.
o Cultural imperialism “involves the institution worldwide of western visions of basic social-cultural reality…”
o The transformations that result from cultural imperialism are very deep and profound.
- According to Inda and Rosaldo…
o Cultural imperialism “entails the dissemination of all facets of the West’s way of being…”
o Note: When the West is discussed in these terms, it is no longer a geographic indicator.
- According to George Ritzer and his theory of McDonaldization…
o Increasing standardization occurs throughout societies and nations.
o Services and products are increasingly standardized and mass-produced.
o This occurs through two different processes: the “grobalization” of nothing and the “glocalization” of something.
Positives Aspects of Cultural Imperialism
- So far, globalization has been taken as negative leading to a loss of diversity but this assumption can be questioned.
- Culture as meaning creation continuously changes.
- People continue to create meanings regardless of globalization.
- If we do try to preserve culture, we must ask ourselves who are we to decide what to preserve and what not to preserve.
- Many cultural brokers try to intervene for others. This is problematic.
- There are problems with preservation.
- Some theorists have pointed to a multitude of positive aspects of cultural imperialism including improved health-care and education, the proliferation of values such as democracy, tolerance, equality, empathy and solidarity, and the protection of human rights.
- George Ritzer provides the tongue-in-cheek theory of the Golden Arches Conflict Prevention.
o According to this theory, no country that has a McDonald’s goes to war with any other country that has a McDonald’s.
o The first exception was NATO’s bombing of Yugoslavia.
Objections to Cultural Imperialism
- Some contend that people are not passive receivers/ consumers. The mere presence of global products does not prove that Western values and understandings are also present.
o A bottle of Coca Cola is understood differently in different contexts and locations.
o Culture is not the property of objects.
o People have agency and the ability to ascribe meanings.
o A classic example is the American television series “Dallas.” This series had a global audience but, according to Tomlinson, viewers consumed the series differently depending on their culture and location.
- Some object to cultural imperialism because it rests on the idea that the Center talks to the Periphery.
o According to Rosaldo, flows occur in the opposite direction. In other words, the Periphery talks back.
o This is shown through “The Peripheralization of the Core” and the existence of global cities in which the whole world is present such as New York, London, Tokyo, etc.
- Finally, some object to cultural imperialism because it centers on the West.
o Cultural Imperialism theory ignores the fact that there are a number of flows that circumvent or ignore the West.
o Those who object argue that there is not one center but that globalization is multi-centered.
o It is impossible to divide the world into two entities: The West and the Rest.
Beyond Cultural Imperialism
- The argument for homogenization is problematic when you focus on how identity is produced.
- In fact, there are increasing possibilities for difference in a globalized world.
- According to Richard Wilk…
o Asserting difference is encouraged in the global community where there are “Structures of Common Difference.”
o There is hegemony of structure not hegemony of content.
o Global structures orchestrate diversity but they do so in a uniform way through a common grammar for the production of difference. This grammar is universal and important because it must be used in order to be recognized and understood by the global community. In other words, in order to be recognized as an indigenous group, the group must conform to these “Structures of Common Difference.” This connects to the idea of culture as a means of creating identities.
o Wilk gives the example of the production of national culture in Belize beginning in the 1990s. Before the 1990s, no national identity existed to unite the inhabitants of Belize. The country was understood, by its citizens, as a mix of people without a unifying identity. This changes during the 1990s and beauty contents played an important role.
The Production of Identity in a Global World (John Tomlinson)
- Global forces are not a threat to cultural identity.
- Globalization actually produces differences.
- This is a critique of the writings of Manuel Castells.
- Identity construction is modern phenomenon.
o In pre-modern societies, identity was not of primary importance.
o This is true especially in relation to identities responding to and being built on sexuality, gender, etc.
- Globalization is the spread of modernity and, with modernity, identity making proliferates.
Concluding Questions
- Why, then, is culture so important?
- Does the modern world threaten culture?
Staffan Appelgren
Seminar Papers- Graded seminar papers will be returned tomorrow, September 23. In the future, make sure to read all of the articles before you decide what to write about. Also, stick to the articles; include all relevant articles and arguments; keep quotations to a minimum.
The Phenomenon of Language
- Languages with a limited number of speakers are disappearing.
- There are approximately 6,000 languages in existence today but 4% of these languages are spoken by 96% of the world’s population.
- 1,500 languages are spoken by less than 1,000 people.
- Every two weeks, a language disappears.
- By 2050, approximately 3,000 languages will remain.
- One of the causes of the eradication of minority languages in bilingualism.
Culture
- Can we say the same thing about cultures; are they also disappearing?
- Newspapers feature stories about dying languages, why don’t they discuss dying cultures?
- The above questions are difficult to answer because culture, unlike language, is difficult to delimit.
- What counts as language is a political decision. Culture, however, is a process of creating meaning.
- One can argue that anthropologists have departed from the idea of humans as meaning creating and seeking.
- Of course, there is an evolving understanding of what a culture is and how it is created.
Definitions of Culture
- Some contend that culture results from artistic production such as the production of books, films, dance, etc.
o This definition is not often discussed in social science contexts.
o We will not discuss this definition during today’s lecture.
- Culture can also be described as coming from objects this is also known as material culture.
o Counter-argument: We ascribe meaning to these objects; they don’t have inherent meaning.
o This definition is similar to Susan Wright’s ideas and arguments.
- One can also define culture as politicized/ commodified through the construction of identity.
o This is derived from symbols, clothes, traditions, etc.
o This definition is often related to in-group similarities.
o This definition is also similar to Susan Wright’s ideas and arguments.
- Finally, culture can be defined as the process of creating meaning.
o This is the definition most often used by anthropologists.
o This definition is process oriented.
o According to this definition, culture is not what you have; it’s what you do.
The Meanings of Culture (Susan Wright)
- Old: Culture is bounded, defined, unchanging, has an underlying system of meanings and is identical.
- New: Culture is an active process with various definitions. It is understood differently by different positioned people. Cultural sites are not bounded. Concept formation is historically specific.
- According to Appelgren, what really goes on in everyday life is “meaning creation.”
- The old understanding of static culture often reappears, especially in identity politics, but is easily questioned.
- An example of the application of the old understanding occurs in Sweden when culture is linked to crime. The majority population asserts that honor-related violence is related to “immigrant culture.” However, when domestic violence occurs in a “Swedish” household it is not related to Swedish culture.
- In other words, old understandings of culture are often invoked to explain peoples’ actions.
Globalization with Agency
- According to Appelgren, it is simply not true that the local only reacts to global forces.
- Agency does exist.
Questions about Cultural Homogenization
- Are we condemned to conformity?
- Are there prospects for difference?
- If yes, what kinds of differences are possible?
- The answers to these questions depend on what kind of culture we are talking about.
- In other words, what kind of culture is reflected by global brands like McDonald’s and Coco Cola?
Cultural Imperialism
- There are unequal flows in a globalized world.
- Cultural imperialism is often associated with Westernization.
- Globalization as cultural imperialism is seen as an extension of colonialism, domination and oppression.
- It is a “soft power” but one with profound implications for individuals.
- The result of cultural imperialism is that local cultures become extinct and replaced by Western culture.
- According to John Tomlinson…
o Cultural imperialism is much more than Westernization.
o Cultural imperialism “involves the institution worldwide of western visions of basic social-cultural reality…”
o The transformations that result from cultural imperialism are very deep and profound.
- According to Inda and Rosaldo…
o Cultural imperialism “entails the dissemination of all facets of the West’s way of being…”
o Note: When the West is discussed in these terms, it is no longer a geographic indicator.
- According to George Ritzer and his theory of McDonaldization…
o Increasing standardization occurs throughout societies and nations.
o Services and products are increasingly standardized and mass-produced.
o This occurs through two different processes: the “grobalization” of nothing and the “glocalization” of something.
Positives Aspects of Cultural Imperialism
- So far, globalization has been taken as negative leading to a loss of diversity but this assumption can be questioned.
- Culture as meaning creation continuously changes.
- People continue to create meanings regardless of globalization.
- If we do try to preserve culture, we must ask ourselves who are we to decide what to preserve and what not to preserve.
- Many cultural brokers try to intervene for others. This is problematic.
- There are problems with preservation.
- Some theorists have pointed to a multitude of positive aspects of cultural imperialism including improved health-care and education, the proliferation of values such as democracy, tolerance, equality, empathy and solidarity, and the protection of human rights.
- George Ritzer provides the tongue-in-cheek theory of the Golden Arches Conflict Prevention.
o According to this theory, no country that has a McDonald’s goes to war with any other country that has a McDonald’s.
o The first exception was NATO’s bombing of Yugoslavia.
Objections to Cultural Imperialism
- Some contend that people are not passive receivers/ consumers. The mere presence of global products does not prove that Western values and understandings are also present.
o A bottle of Coca Cola is understood differently in different contexts and locations.
o Culture is not the property of objects.
o People have agency and the ability to ascribe meanings.
o A classic example is the American television series “Dallas.” This series had a global audience but, according to Tomlinson, viewers consumed the series differently depending on their culture and location.
- Some object to cultural imperialism because it rests on the idea that the Center talks to the Periphery.
o According to Rosaldo, flows occur in the opposite direction. In other words, the Periphery talks back.
o This is shown through “The Peripheralization of the Core” and the existence of global cities in which the whole world is present such as New York, London, Tokyo, etc.
- Finally, some object to cultural imperialism because it centers on the West.
o Cultural Imperialism theory ignores the fact that there are a number of flows that circumvent or ignore the West.
o Those who object argue that there is not one center but that globalization is multi-centered.
o It is impossible to divide the world into two entities: The West and the Rest.
Beyond Cultural Imperialism
- The argument for homogenization is problematic when you focus on how identity is produced.
- In fact, there are increasing possibilities for difference in a globalized world.
- According to Richard Wilk…
o Asserting difference is encouraged in the global community where there are “Structures of Common Difference.”
o There is hegemony of structure not hegemony of content.
o Global structures orchestrate diversity but they do so in a uniform way through a common grammar for the production of difference. This grammar is universal and important because it must be used in order to be recognized and understood by the global community. In other words, in order to be recognized as an indigenous group, the group must conform to these “Structures of Common Difference.” This connects to the idea of culture as a means of creating identities.
o Wilk gives the example of the production of national culture in Belize beginning in the 1990s. Before the 1990s, no national identity existed to unite the inhabitants of Belize. The country was understood, by its citizens, as a mix of people without a unifying identity. This changes during the 1990s and beauty contents played an important role.
The Production of Identity in a Global World (John Tomlinson)
- Global forces are not a threat to cultural identity.
- Globalization actually produces differences.
- This is a critique of the writings of Manuel Castells.
- Identity construction is modern phenomenon.
o In pre-modern societies, identity was not of primary importance.
o This is true especially in relation to identities responding to and being built on sexuality, gender, etc.
- Globalization is the spread of modernity and, with modernity, identity making proliferates.
Concluding Questions
- Why, then, is culture so important?
- Does the modern world threaten culture?
Monday, September 21, 2009
"Economic Homogenization and the Market"
Lecture #7: “Economic Homogenization and the Market”
Erik Andersson
What is homogenization and how does it relate to markets?
- Encyclopaedia Britannica: “process of reducing a substance, such as the fat globules of milk, to extremely small particles and distributing it uniformly throughout a fluid, such as milk.”
- In other words, homogenization is the process of making something uniform in something else in order to enhance the latter entity.
- Proposition: “Globalization homogenizes markets and societies to support capitalist expansion and growth.”
o This proposition seems to be refuted by the following definition of economic systems in the Encyclopaedia Britannica (EB).
o According to EB, “The form of capitalism taken also differs between nations, because the practice of it is embedded within cultures; even the forces of globalization and the threat of homogenization have proved to be more myth than reality. Markets cater to national culture as much as national culture mutates to conform to the discipline of profit and loss. It is to this very adaptability that capitalism appears to owe its continued vitality.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica, “economic systems”)
Transnational Corporations (TNCs)
- TNCs are a strong force in the process of globalization.
- TNCs have moved away from a Fordist structure and have become network entities.
o These networks are highly mobile.
o Assembly and design can and do occur different places.
o This represents a big change in the ways that companies do business.
- Countries want headquarters and assembly lines located domestically and as thus willing to create policies that entice TNCs.
- TNCs, themselves, operate above the nation-state system.
o They can be located virtually anywhere on earth.
o They are located in places that yield the highest profits.
o They avoid place with risk (due to economic, political and/or social instability) and high costs (poor geography, difficulty shipping and receiving).
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR aka Corporate Citizenship)
- CSR is a consequential, homogenizing force.
- CSR developed as a response to Kofi Annan’s speech in 1999 which stated that corporations can uphold human rights regardless of government policies.
- TNCs embrace CSR and thus avoid violating human rights.
- CSR established a “level playing field” in business in which TNCs agreed not to employ child labor, cap over time, allow unions, mitigate against environmental damage, etc.
- TNCs must adopt the strictest standards of the countries in which they are listed. (ie. Ericsson had to adopt US financial reporting standards.
- TNCs also adopt CSR in order to avoid consumer boycotts.
Global Ownership
- Global Ownership is becoming more concentrated and anonymous.
- It is more concentrated because companies are buying each other up through mergers and acquisitions (M&A)
- It is more anonymous because of increased investment by pension funds.
Transnational Corporations Produce Global Products
- Coca Cola, Ford, Volvo, GM, Microsoft, etc.
- These global products have local meanings.
o They are distributed in accordance with local meaning. (ie. During the 1990’s the Big Mac was considered a “rich man’s food” in the USSR.)
o Local meanings vary from region to region, nation to nation, group to group.
Global Trade Regimes: World Trade Organization (WTO) and General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
- These global trade regimes were designed to establish a “level playing field” among trading nations.
- They operate according to the principles of MFN, National Treatment and Reciprocity.
o Most Favored Nation (MFN): This name was inherited from the original GATT negotiations held in the 1940s. MFN holds that a country to grant the same tariffs to all members of the WTO that it grants to its most favored trading partner. In other words, if Sweden has the lowest tariffs against Germany in trading auto parts at 12%, Sweden must extend the same tariff , with respect to auto parts, to all members of the WTO. In the 1940s, the average tariff wall as approximately 40%. Today, the average tariff wall is approximately 4%.
o National Treatment: This principle states that once a product is imported into a country, that product must be treated like all other similar products bought and sold in that country. In other words, if Sweden imports Toyota cars, the sale of those cars are subject to the same regulations as the sale of Volvo and Saab cars produced domestically.
o Reciprocity: If country A lowers tariffs against country B, country B must lower tariffs against country A.
***WTO/GATT Mandate***
- Increase free trade.
The Uruguay Round (UR)
- The UR resulted in the creation of the WTO (a formal organization of GATT) which could settle disputes and negotiate.
- The UR granted some policy space to the developing world to protect infant industries.
The Doha Development Round (DDR)
- Since tariff walls are so low today, the benefits of DOHA, especially for developing countries, become smaller and smaller.
- When you decrease tariff walls, your local industries have to compete with industries from abroad.
o In developing countries, infant industries are not as well developed and may fail because these industries are no longer protected.
o Developing nations contend that the smaller benefits accorded by DDR are not worth the sacrifices.
- Thus DDR is dead, for now…
Free Trade Areas
- Because DDR is dead, some countries have moved forward on their own and created Free Trade Areas (FTAs, RTAs)
- In FTAs, countries agree to pursue trade on a freer basis than prescribed by the WTO.
- Of course, the same policy space vs growth trade-offs need to be considered.
o This is a more important consideration for developing countries since the more industrialized party always reaps greater benefits.
o This trade-off may not always benefit poorer states.
- FTAs have become a force with the DOHA negotiations.
Market, what is it?
- The market is both a formal and informal institutional setting.
o Formal institutions include tariffs, laws, regulations, etc.
o Information institutions include norms and habits that make actors behave in certain ways.
- Formal institutional settings are politically constructed and maintained.
o Formal institutional settings regulate economic interactions.
o Formal institutional settings also constitute certain forms of economic interactions.
- Markets don’t happen; they are constructed.
o Adam Smith may not have agreed with the above statement.
o These changes have occurred primarily in the last 10-20 years.
Global Drivers of Institutional Change
- WTO: Once a country signs on to the WTO, they must adjust national laws and regulations to WTO rules.
- IMF, Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRS): PRS are required before securing a loan from the IMF.
- World Bank conditionalities
- UN: Countries and TNCs must uphold human rights and security.
- G7/8/20: This is a club with formal power that tries to establish non-contradictory economic policies.
- Regionalization (FTAs, RTAs, DTTs, etc.)
Encyclopaedia Britannica Revisited
- “Markets cater to national culture as much as national culture mutates to conform to the discipline of profit and loss.”
- But this only occurs after market access has been granted and formal institutions have been made compatible with the logic of globalization.
Conclusion
- Markets are not homogenized; institutions are homogenized.
- Institutional homogeneity is orchestrated by states as a result of global drivers of institutional change.
- States seek to support continued economic globalization up to a point.
- Current scenario: strong, diverse South + global recession + huge hegemonic problems + global financial crisis = ?
Erik Andersson
What is homogenization and how does it relate to markets?
- Encyclopaedia Britannica: “process of reducing a substance, such as the fat globules of milk, to extremely small particles and distributing it uniformly throughout a fluid, such as milk.”
- In other words, homogenization is the process of making something uniform in something else in order to enhance the latter entity.
- Proposition: “Globalization homogenizes markets and societies to support capitalist expansion and growth.”
o This proposition seems to be refuted by the following definition of economic systems in the Encyclopaedia Britannica (EB).
o According to EB, “The form of capitalism taken also differs between nations, because the practice of it is embedded within cultures; even the forces of globalization and the threat of homogenization have proved to be more myth than reality. Markets cater to national culture as much as national culture mutates to conform to the discipline of profit and loss. It is to this very adaptability that capitalism appears to owe its continued vitality.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica, “economic systems”)
Transnational Corporations (TNCs)
- TNCs are a strong force in the process of globalization.
- TNCs have moved away from a Fordist structure and have become network entities.
o These networks are highly mobile.
o Assembly and design can and do occur different places.
o This represents a big change in the ways that companies do business.
- Countries want headquarters and assembly lines located domestically and as thus willing to create policies that entice TNCs.
- TNCs, themselves, operate above the nation-state system.
o They can be located virtually anywhere on earth.
o They are located in places that yield the highest profits.
o They avoid place with risk (due to economic, political and/or social instability) and high costs (poor geography, difficulty shipping and receiving).
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR aka Corporate Citizenship)
- CSR is a consequential, homogenizing force.
- CSR developed as a response to Kofi Annan’s speech in 1999 which stated that corporations can uphold human rights regardless of government policies.
- TNCs embrace CSR and thus avoid violating human rights.
- CSR established a “level playing field” in business in which TNCs agreed not to employ child labor, cap over time, allow unions, mitigate against environmental damage, etc.
- TNCs must adopt the strictest standards of the countries in which they are listed. (ie. Ericsson had to adopt US financial reporting standards.
- TNCs also adopt CSR in order to avoid consumer boycotts.
Global Ownership
- Global Ownership is becoming more concentrated and anonymous.
- It is more concentrated because companies are buying each other up through mergers and acquisitions (M&A)
- It is more anonymous because of increased investment by pension funds.
Transnational Corporations Produce Global Products
- Coca Cola, Ford, Volvo, GM, Microsoft, etc.
- These global products have local meanings.
o They are distributed in accordance with local meaning. (ie. During the 1990’s the Big Mac was considered a “rich man’s food” in the USSR.)
o Local meanings vary from region to region, nation to nation, group to group.
Global Trade Regimes: World Trade Organization (WTO) and General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
- These global trade regimes were designed to establish a “level playing field” among trading nations.
- They operate according to the principles of MFN, National Treatment and Reciprocity.
o Most Favored Nation (MFN): This name was inherited from the original GATT negotiations held in the 1940s. MFN holds that a country to grant the same tariffs to all members of the WTO that it grants to its most favored trading partner. In other words, if Sweden has the lowest tariffs against Germany in trading auto parts at 12%, Sweden must extend the same tariff , with respect to auto parts, to all members of the WTO. In the 1940s, the average tariff wall as approximately 40%. Today, the average tariff wall is approximately 4%.
o National Treatment: This principle states that once a product is imported into a country, that product must be treated like all other similar products bought and sold in that country. In other words, if Sweden imports Toyota cars, the sale of those cars are subject to the same regulations as the sale of Volvo and Saab cars produced domestically.
o Reciprocity: If country A lowers tariffs against country B, country B must lower tariffs against country A.
***WTO/GATT Mandate***
- Increase free trade.
The Uruguay Round (UR)
- The UR resulted in the creation of the WTO (a formal organization of GATT) which could settle disputes and negotiate.
- The UR granted some policy space to the developing world to protect infant industries.
The Doha Development Round (DDR)
- Since tariff walls are so low today, the benefits of DOHA, especially for developing countries, become smaller and smaller.
- When you decrease tariff walls, your local industries have to compete with industries from abroad.
o In developing countries, infant industries are not as well developed and may fail because these industries are no longer protected.
o Developing nations contend that the smaller benefits accorded by DDR are not worth the sacrifices.
- Thus DDR is dead, for now…
Free Trade Areas
- Because DDR is dead, some countries have moved forward on their own and created Free Trade Areas (FTAs, RTAs)
- In FTAs, countries agree to pursue trade on a freer basis than prescribed by the WTO.
- Of course, the same policy space vs growth trade-offs need to be considered.
o This is a more important consideration for developing countries since the more industrialized party always reaps greater benefits.
o This trade-off may not always benefit poorer states.
- FTAs have become a force with the DOHA negotiations.
Market, what is it?
- The market is both a formal and informal institutional setting.
o Formal institutions include tariffs, laws, regulations, etc.
o Information institutions include norms and habits that make actors behave in certain ways.
- Formal institutional settings are politically constructed and maintained.
o Formal institutional settings regulate economic interactions.
o Formal institutional settings also constitute certain forms of economic interactions.
- Markets don’t happen; they are constructed.
o Adam Smith may not have agreed with the above statement.
o These changes have occurred primarily in the last 10-20 years.
Global Drivers of Institutional Change
- WTO: Once a country signs on to the WTO, they must adjust national laws and regulations to WTO rules.
- IMF, Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRS): PRS are required before securing a loan from the IMF.
- World Bank conditionalities
- UN: Countries and TNCs must uphold human rights and security.
- G7/8/20: This is a club with formal power that tries to establish non-contradictory economic policies.
- Regionalization (FTAs, RTAs, DTTs, etc.)
Encyclopaedia Britannica Revisited
- “Markets cater to national culture as much as national culture mutates to conform to the discipline of profit and loss.”
- But this only occurs after market access has been granted and formal institutions have been made compatible with the logic of globalization.
Conclusion
- Markets are not homogenized; institutions are homogenized.
- Institutional homogeneity is orchestrated by states as a result of global drivers of institutional change.
- States seek to support continued economic globalization up to a point.
- Current scenario: strong, diverse South + global recession + huge hegemonic problems + global financial crisis = ?
Wednesday, September 16, 2009
"Sovereignty"
Lecture #6: “Sovereignty”
Maria Stern and Peer Schouter
Sovereignty and Globalization
- Today we will discuss sovereignty and the state in connection to globalization.
- State sovereignty is a principle, a law, a convention and a myth that tries to answer questions about power, authority, accountability, governance, legitimacy, legality, etc.
- Sovereignty has to do with the locus of politics and is connected to identity, political subjectivity, democracy and agency.
- Sovereignty is both an elegant and problematic response to the issues listed above.
Basic Definitions
- The state: Most literature refers to the idea of the modern liberal state. Of course, this conception is often at odds with actual states. According to Weber, the state has a monopoly on the use of force. The state is also a legal and juridical entity with a government and state apparatuses or executive-administrative structure. According to Haywood in Concepts in Politics, the state is sovereign. It stands above all other groups. It contains public institutions and reflects the permanent interests of society. The state’s authority is backed up by coercion and a state must have the capacity to ensure its laws are obeyed. A state is also a territorial association with a jurisdiction that is geographically defined. On the international stage, a state is regarded as an autonomous entity. Furthermore, the citizens of a state enter into a social contract with the state whereby they have certain rights and responsibilities.
o The ideal modern liberal state has a government, ensures the security and welfare of its citizens as well as the (relatively) equal distribution of resources.
o Nationalism lends legitimacy and gives meaning to the state.
- Sovereignty: In order for the state to work, it must be sovereign. Sovereignty is the complete, comprehensive and exclusive rule over a given territory and those residing within that territory. The internal face of sovereignty entails the claim that the state has final legal authority within its borders. The external face of sovereignty rejects authority higher or other than the state. A sovereign state has to be recognized by other states—although this recognition is problematic. There is a juridical or legal sovereignty which assumes a system of states with a set of rules. There is also an empirical sovereignty which entails the ability to make an effective internal claim to sovereign control.
- Autonomy: Autonomy is independence or complete and exclusive rule both externally and internally.
Concrete Examples of Sovereign States (?): the Netherlands, Somalia, Kosovo, Palestine, Iraq
- The Netherlands: Most would agree that the Netherlands is a sovereign state but it is not, necessarily, autonomous. The Netherlands is a member of the European Union and has accordingly relinquished monetary autonomy. The Netherlands also has a contingent of American soldiers inside its borders.
- Somalia: The Somali government has no effective claim over the use of force. Force is exercised by a variety of non-state actors including pirates and warlords. Somali citizens do not feel represented by their government and many Somalis receive resources vital to daily existence from aid agencies. And yet, Somalia is recognized as a sovereign state by the United Nations. Somaliland, which exists within Somalia, has its own queen, central bank and international trading partners but it is not recognized as sovereign.
- Kosovo: Many states recognize the sovereignty of Kosovo but many do not. Most notably, Russia does not recognize Kosovo’s sovereignty. This is problematic because Russia is a member of the United Nations Security Council and therefore has the power to veto any attempt to recognize Kosovo’s sovereignty.
- Palestine: Palestine is a contested state. It has laws and a government but it does not have sovereignty or autonomy. Of course, Palestine, like any state, can be considered sovereign or not sovereign depending on your definition of sovereignty and the aspects of sovereignty that you are examining.
- Iraq: In 2004, CNN ran the headline, “The US returns sovereignty to Iraq.” The story described a US official handing over sovereignty to an Iraqi official on a specific date and time. Some said the hand over was meaningless while others argued it was a step in the right direction.
How does globalization relate to sovereignty?
- Globalization touches on the core issues of sovereignty. This is illustrates more clearly by examining definitions of globalization.
o One author defines globalization as the “growing interdependence of national economies.”
o Martin Kohr contends that “globalization is what we in the Third World have for several centuries called colonization.”
o Still another writes that “globalization is a rubric for varied phenomena.”
- Neo-medievalism contends that globalization is multi-layered and fragmented both of which concern autonomy and authority. Thus globalization is a force that diffused political authority and sovereignty.
- Neo-liberals believe that global interdependence increases welfare, security and democracy and, ultimately, enhances global civil society.
- An example of the entwined relationship of sovereignty and globalization is “the responsibility to protect.” According to this argument, sovereignty has become an impediment to protecting human rights. Underlying this statement is the assumption that some states simply aren’t working.
- Cosmopolitanism championed by David Held argues that a world society can answer global questions and mediate global issues. According to this theory, we need to start lifting decision-making from the state. Good governance is required to protect fragile states (formally unknown as failed states). State sovereignty is no longer uncontested primarily because terrorism, piracy, environmental disasters, etc. do not obey borders.
- Accountability and authority pose real problems for global governance. States act on their own interests, not the interests of humanity.
- Today, there is no global governance with absolute power or authority.
Vital Questions raised by Sovereignty and Globalization
- Is the state dead?
- Does the state still exist?
- Has the state ever existed?
The Bottom Line: Globalization forces us to rethink sovereignty.
Maria Stern and Peer Schouter
Sovereignty and Globalization
- Today we will discuss sovereignty and the state in connection to globalization.
- State sovereignty is a principle, a law, a convention and a myth that tries to answer questions about power, authority, accountability, governance, legitimacy, legality, etc.
- Sovereignty has to do with the locus of politics and is connected to identity, political subjectivity, democracy and agency.
- Sovereignty is both an elegant and problematic response to the issues listed above.
Basic Definitions
- The state: Most literature refers to the idea of the modern liberal state. Of course, this conception is often at odds with actual states. According to Weber, the state has a monopoly on the use of force. The state is also a legal and juridical entity with a government and state apparatuses or executive-administrative structure. According to Haywood in Concepts in Politics, the state is sovereign. It stands above all other groups. It contains public institutions and reflects the permanent interests of society. The state’s authority is backed up by coercion and a state must have the capacity to ensure its laws are obeyed. A state is also a territorial association with a jurisdiction that is geographically defined. On the international stage, a state is regarded as an autonomous entity. Furthermore, the citizens of a state enter into a social contract with the state whereby they have certain rights and responsibilities.
o The ideal modern liberal state has a government, ensures the security and welfare of its citizens as well as the (relatively) equal distribution of resources.
o Nationalism lends legitimacy and gives meaning to the state.
- Sovereignty: In order for the state to work, it must be sovereign. Sovereignty is the complete, comprehensive and exclusive rule over a given territory and those residing within that territory. The internal face of sovereignty entails the claim that the state has final legal authority within its borders. The external face of sovereignty rejects authority higher or other than the state. A sovereign state has to be recognized by other states—although this recognition is problematic. There is a juridical or legal sovereignty which assumes a system of states with a set of rules. There is also an empirical sovereignty which entails the ability to make an effective internal claim to sovereign control.
- Autonomy: Autonomy is independence or complete and exclusive rule both externally and internally.
Concrete Examples of Sovereign States (?): the Netherlands, Somalia, Kosovo, Palestine, Iraq
- The Netherlands: Most would agree that the Netherlands is a sovereign state but it is not, necessarily, autonomous. The Netherlands is a member of the European Union and has accordingly relinquished monetary autonomy. The Netherlands also has a contingent of American soldiers inside its borders.
- Somalia: The Somali government has no effective claim over the use of force. Force is exercised by a variety of non-state actors including pirates and warlords. Somali citizens do not feel represented by their government and many Somalis receive resources vital to daily existence from aid agencies. And yet, Somalia is recognized as a sovereign state by the United Nations. Somaliland, which exists within Somalia, has its own queen, central bank and international trading partners but it is not recognized as sovereign.
- Kosovo: Many states recognize the sovereignty of Kosovo but many do not. Most notably, Russia does not recognize Kosovo’s sovereignty. This is problematic because Russia is a member of the United Nations Security Council and therefore has the power to veto any attempt to recognize Kosovo’s sovereignty.
- Palestine: Palestine is a contested state. It has laws and a government but it does not have sovereignty or autonomy. Of course, Palestine, like any state, can be considered sovereign or not sovereign depending on your definition of sovereignty and the aspects of sovereignty that you are examining.
- Iraq: In 2004, CNN ran the headline, “The US returns sovereignty to Iraq.” The story described a US official handing over sovereignty to an Iraqi official on a specific date and time. Some said the hand over was meaningless while others argued it was a step in the right direction.
How does globalization relate to sovereignty?
- Globalization touches on the core issues of sovereignty. This is illustrates more clearly by examining definitions of globalization.
o One author defines globalization as the “growing interdependence of national economies.”
o Martin Kohr contends that “globalization is what we in the Third World have for several centuries called colonization.”
o Still another writes that “globalization is a rubric for varied phenomena.”
- Neo-medievalism contends that globalization is multi-layered and fragmented both of which concern autonomy and authority. Thus globalization is a force that diffused political authority and sovereignty.
- Neo-liberals believe that global interdependence increases welfare, security and democracy and, ultimately, enhances global civil society.
- An example of the entwined relationship of sovereignty and globalization is “the responsibility to protect.” According to this argument, sovereignty has become an impediment to protecting human rights. Underlying this statement is the assumption that some states simply aren’t working.
- Cosmopolitanism championed by David Held argues that a world society can answer global questions and mediate global issues. According to this theory, we need to start lifting decision-making from the state. Good governance is required to protect fragile states (formally unknown as failed states). State sovereignty is no longer uncontested primarily because terrorism, piracy, environmental disasters, etc. do not obey borders.
- Accountability and authority pose real problems for global governance. States act on their own interests, not the interests of humanity.
- Today, there is no global governance with absolute power or authority.
Vital Questions raised by Sovereignty and Globalization
- Is the state dead?
- Does the state still exist?
- Has the state ever existed?
The Bottom Line: Globalization forces us to rethink sovereignty.
Tuesday, September 15, 2009
"Cultural Disembedding and Social Dislocation"
Lecture #5: “Cultural Disembedding and Social Dislocation”
Staffan Appelgren
Opening note: Today we will begin by discussing the meaning of globalization. We will start with the definition provided by Jan Aart Scholte and I will make some of my own additions.
The Meaning of Globalization
- I agree with Scholte that what theory you choose and can best answer questions in related to the phenomena you are researching. In other words, you need to employ theory according to your research question.
- If we want to understand globalization more deeply, we need to isolate two crucial factors:
o The Global Subject- The global subject is a subject conscious of global interconnections that shape his or her life.
§ Rather than focusing on material flows (i.e. mobile phones, foreign investment), I would like to focus on the mind or the creation of subjects. Globalization is the spread of an awareness that we are a part of a greater whole. Globalization is with us and within us. Some people are more conscious of globalization but there is an awareness of us and them. This awareness has always existed. What I am arguing is that there is now a greater whole encompassing us all. “We” or “us” are necessarily interrelated with “them.” The imaginary is a crucial factor in the process of globalization. This awareness is grounded in practical experiences.
§ The global subject is increasingly pushed to participate in a global world primarily as a consumer. As we are drawn into consumer society, we are constituted as consumers even in social and political domains. For example, people are encouraged to think about carbon emissions as both an economic and political issue. As a result, politics and ideology are increasingly subordinated to economics. Responsibility is individualized— you deal with the environment as an individual not a collective— and accountability is diffused— everyone is responsible for environmental degradation.
o No Escape- There is no place outside of the global; we are in it together, like it or not.
§ I differ from Scholte who says social action increasingly takes place on a global scale. Rather than saying that social action has global reach, I would like to phrase it as an inability to escape. There has been an erasure of positions of non-engagement. As we learned from the hunt for Bin Laden, if globalization means anything, it means the vanishing of exteriority both in physical and psychological terms.
§ Globalization and the advance of capitalism also means the subordination of other forms of social organization (i.e. indigenous people)
§ According to Anna Tsing, it’s a matter of the symbolic order that has the power to decide.
- A final note on the characterization of globalization:
o Scholte points to quantitative differences (i.e. velocity) in globalization. I believe that we quantitative differences exist but this is not a qualitative difference. A qualitative difference is the closure of non-interconnected space and the transformation of the global subject.
o Of course, it is easier to talk about globalization in terms of “more.”
Today’s Texts: Giddens and Harvey
- Today we will discuss “Modernity, Time and Space” and “Disembedding” by Anthony Giddens and “Time-Space Compression and the Postmodern Condition” by David Harvey. Both are classic texts.
“Time-Space Compression and the Postmodern Condition” by David Harvey
- Harvey discusses conditions of post-modernity and argues that we are experiencing an intense form of time-space compression due to transformations in capitalism. This shift in capitalism has consequences for the society as a whole.
- Crucial to this shift is the speeding up of production, consumption and life in general. This occurs through such things as outsourcing and non-binding labor contracts.
- We have shifted from consumption of material objects to services which turn over rapidly.
- In addition, social-cultural life has become more sensuous—thinking is no longer as important as it used to be.
o Things that are produced in one location rapidly lead to emotional reactions elsewhere. (i.e. Mohammed cartoons, the Aftonbladet article on the Israeli military)
o Because life is sensuous, heated debates occur between countries, leaders and ordinary people.
o In other words, we live in a global world where emotions are important.
- Space has been abstracted and boundaries have dissolved but, at the same time, place has become more important.
- Space needs the capacity to attract capital which flows and flees rapidly.
o How can a place (space) attract capital?
§ Deregulation
§ Decreased taxation
§ Educated / Skilled workforce
§ Cultural richness
o This gives capital the means to exploit places (the commodification of space)
o This competition can turn into a race to the bottom and creates new hierarchies between places.
“Modernity, Time and Space” and “Disembedding” by Anthony Giddens
- Giddens formulates the same kind of concept called Time-Space Distanciation or the stretching of social actions and relations.
- He argues that the processes connect presence with absence or a departure from face to face interactions.
- In large, modern societies, social interaction is governed by absence and not always conditioned by space this is the disembedding process.
- In other words, globalization is an extension of the disembedding of social relations on a global scale.
Disembedding Processes
- Time: The modern clock disembeds social life. Although time and calendars have existed in many societies they existed in the form of contextualized time. Time existed in relation to rituals, seasons and the cosmos; it was connected to practices. Modern time is abstracted and facilitates larger societies, scientific measurement, transportation, communication, etc.
- Writing and Printing: Writing has a long history starting in China, Mesopotamia and elsewhere. The first writing systems were used both to communicate with gods and to govern people. Like time, writing facilitates the growth of societies. Writing was disembedding because, through writing, knowledge becomes distanced from time and space.
o In oral societies, knowledge was dependent on repetition tied to time, place, activity and person.
o In literate societies, knowledge can move around independently of time and space. It is moveable and transferable.
o Plato argues against the disembedding process inherent in writing in Phaedrus. Here, Plato contends that writing is a poison to memory and only produces forgetfulness. He argues that writing is only the appearance of knowledge, not real knowledge.
o Derrida presents a counter-argument.
- Money: Money disembeds economic transactions from local, social contexted once again stretching time and space. Wealth is now convertible throughout the world. Someone can earn money in Sweden and spend it practically anywhere on earth.
o Marx criticized the subordination of the worker through money.
o Time and space is now commodified.
- Bureaucratic Organization: Max Weber contends that modern societies are said to be organized and ruled according to the abstract principles of equality. In non-modern societies, rights, responsibilities, power, etc. were largely based on kinship, class and regional origins. Today, at least theoretically, all people are equal and deserve equal access to education and equality before the law.
- Tradition: In modern life, tradition comes back to us as “tradition.” Tradition is a part of modernity and the present. Our own identities, cultures and traditions are being lifted out of ourselves, examined and selected or rejected. We don’t just practice traditions, we question them and decide whether or not to observe them. There was a time when tradition did not entail choice and awareness. Today, we are aware of choice. But, in my opinion, the option we can’t choose is not to choose. This process of choosing necessitates rationalization. In other words, I do this because I am female, American, etc.
Staffan Appelgren
Opening note: Today we will begin by discussing the meaning of globalization. We will start with the definition provided by Jan Aart Scholte and I will make some of my own additions.
The Meaning of Globalization
- I agree with Scholte that what theory you choose and can best answer questions in related to the phenomena you are researching. In other words, you need to employ theory according to your research question.
- If we want to understand globalization more deeply, we need to isolate two crucial factors:
o The Global Subject- The global subject is a subject conscious of global interconnections that shape his or her life.
§ Rather than focusing on material flows (i.e. mobile phones, foreign investment), I would like to focus on the mind or the creation of subjects. Globalization is the spread of an awareness that we are a part of a greater whole. Globalization is with us and within us. Some people are more conscious of globalization but there is an awareness of us and them. This awareness has always existed. What I am arguing is that there is now a greater whole encompassing us all. “We” or “us” are necessarily interrelated with “them.” The imaginary is a crucial factor in the process of globalization. This awareness is grounded in practical experiences.
§ The global subject is increasingly pushed to participate in a global world primarily as a consumer. As we are drawn into consumer society, we are constituted as consumers even in social and political domains. For example, people are encouraged to think about carbon emissions as both an economic and political issue. As a result, politics and ideology are increasingly subordinated to economics. Responsibility is individualized— you deal with the environment as an individual not a collective— and accountability is diffused— everyone is responsible for environmental degradation.
o No Escape- There is no place outside of the global; we are in it together, like it or not.
§ I differ from Scholte who says social action increasingly takes place on a global scale. Rather than saying that social action has global reach, I would like to phrase it as an inability to escape. There has been an erasure of positions of non-engagement. As we learned from the hunt for Bin Laden, if globalization means anything, it means the vanishing of exteriority both in physical and psychological terms.
§ Globalization and the advance of capitalism also means the subordination of other forms of social organization (i.e. indigenous people)
§ According to Anna Tsing, it’s a matter of the symbolic order that has the power to decide.
- A final note on the characterization of globalization:
o Scholte points to quantitative differences (i.e. velocity) in globalization. I believe that we quantitative differences exist but this is not a qualitative difference. A qualitative difference is the closure of non-interconnected space and the transformation of the global subject.
o Of course, it is easier to talk about globalization in terms of “more.”
Today’s Texts: Giddens and Harvey
- Today we will discuss “Modernity, Time and Space” and “Disembedding” by Anthony Giddens and “Time-Space Compression and the Postmodern Condition” by David Harvey. Both are classic texts.
“Time-Space Compression and the Postmodern Condition” by David Harvey
- Harvey discusses conditions of post-modernity and argues that we are experiencing an intense form of time-space compression due to transformations in capitalism. This shift in capitalism has consequences for the society as a whole.
- Crucial to this shift is the speeding up of production, consumption and life in general. This occurs through such things as outsourcing and non-binding labor contracts.
- We have shifted from consumption of material objects to services which turn over rapidly.
- In addition, social-cultural life has become more sensuous—thinking is no longer as important as it used to be.
o Things that are produced in one location rapidly lead to emotional reactions elsewhere. (i.e. Mohammed cartoons, the Aftonbladet article on the Israeli military)
o Because life is sensuous, heated debates occur between countries, leaders and ordinary people.
o In other words, we live in a global world where emotions are important.
- Space has been abstracted and boundaries have dissolved but, at the same time, place has become more important.
- Space needs the capacity to attract capital which flows and flees rapidly.
o How can a place (space) attract capital?
§ Deregulation
§ Decreased taxation
§ Educated / Skilled workforce
§ Cultural richness
o This gives capital the means to exploit places (the commodification of space)
o This competition can turn into a race to the bottom and creates new hierarchies between places.
“Modernity, Time and Space” and “Disembedding” by Anthony Giddens
- Giddens formulates the same kind of concept called Time-Space Distanciation or the stretching of social actions and relations.
- He argues that the processes connect presence with absence or a departure from face to face interactions.
- In large, modern societies, social interaction is governed by absence and not always conditioned by space this is the disembedding process.
- In other words, globalization is an extension of the disembedding of social relations on a global scale.
Disembedding Processes
- Time: The modern clock disembeds social life. Although time and calendars have existed in many societies they existed in the form of contextualized time. Time existed in relation to rituals, seasons and the cosmos; it was connected to practices. Modern time is abstracted and facilitates larger societies, scientific measurement, transportation, communication, etc.
- Writing and Printing: Writing has a long history starting in China, Mesopotamia and elsewhere. The first writing systems were used both to communicate with gods and to govern people. Like time, writing facilitates the growth of societies. Writing was disembedding because, through writing, knowledge becomes distanced from time and space.
o In oral societies, knowledge was dependent on repetition tied to time, place, activity and person.
o In literate societies, knowledge can move around independently of time and space. It is moveable and transferable.
o Plato argues against the disembedding process inherent in writing in Phaedrus. Here, Plato contends that writing is a poison to memory and only produces forgetfulness. He argues that writing is only the appearance of knowledge, not real knowledge.
o Derrida presents a counter-argument.
- Money: Money disembeds economic transactions from local, social contexted once again stretching time and space. Wealth is now convertible throughout the world. Someone can earn money in Sweden and spend it practically anywhere on earth.
o Marx criticized the subordination of the worker through money.
o Time and space is now commodified.
- Bureaucratic Organization: Max Weber contends that modern societies are said to be organized and ruled according to the abstract principles of equality. In non-modern societies, rights, responsibilities, power, etc. were largely based on kinship, class and regional origins. Today, at least theoretically, all people are equal and deserve equal access to education and equality before the law.
- Tradition: In modern life, tradition comes back to us as “tradition.” Tradition is a part of modernity and the present. Our own identities, cultures and traditions are being lifted out of ourselves, examined and selected or rejected. We don’t just practice traditions, we question them and decide whether or not to observe them. There was a time when tradition did not entail choice and awareness. Today, we are aware of choice. But, in my opinion, the option we can’t choose is not to choose. This process of choosing necessitates rationalization. In other words, I do this because I am female, American, etc.
"Reorganization of Space"
Lecure #4: "The Reorganization of Space"
Karl Bruckmeier, Human Ecology
See powerpoint distributed during lecture.
Karl Bruckmeier, Human Ecology
See powerpoint distributed during lecture.
"The Role of Regionalization is a Globalizing World"
Lecture # 3: "The Role of Regionalization in a Globalizing World"
Fredrik Söderbaum
See Soderbaum.lecture.ppt at http://kursportal.student.gu.se/inst/S2GLS%7C_%7CNONE/GS2121au09/anslagstavla/index.php
Fredrik Söderbaum
See Soderbaum.lecture.ppt at http://kursportal.student.gu.se/inst/S2GLS%7C_%7CNONE/GS2121au09/anslagstavla/index.php
Thursday, September 10, 2009
"An Introduction to the Global" (Lecture C)
Lecture #2c: “An Introduction to the Global”
Jan Aart Scholte
Opening note: Today we will discuss normative concerns regarding globalization. Again, these concerns are both political and controversial.
Review: Yesterday we discussed six analytical theories that seek to explain globalization. These theories include: liberalism, political realism, Marxism, constructivism, poststructuralism and feminism. Each of these theories looks at globalization in terms of different issues, actors, structures and processes. Because so many theoretical explanations exist, theory is one of the most difficult things to pin down. Of course, without theory, you are lost. Theory tells you what evidence to collect and the causal connections between data. Thus, it is imperative to consider theory.
How do you choose?
- Here are five criteria that you can use to select a theory.
o Does the theory have logical coherence? A viable theory must hold together in its own terms, this is why it is so difficult to pick and choose between theories. Unfortunately, all of the explanatory theories presented have logical coherence. Therefore, this criterion is not of much help.
o Is it possible to empirically verify the theory? In other words, is it possible to relate the theory to concrete experiences and conditions? Unfortunately, this criterion is also not very helpful since all theories presented can be applied to concrete conditions. For example, it is possible to apply every theory to the upcoming G20 summit.
o Does the theory stand up to counterfactual questioning? Counterfactual question is a process of imagining outcomes in the absence of the theory. If the same outcome could not occur without your theory, the theory works. For example, imagine that capitalism did not exist and ask yourself if globalization would have occurred. If no, Marxism is a good explanatory theory for globalization.
o Does the theory promote desirable outcomes? The truth is not separate from reality. Theory and practice are interrelated. The theory you adopt has political consequences. During the Cold War, political realism was dominant. Many contend that political realism was a part of the Cold War. When the Cold War ended, realist theories subsided. Thus you need to ask yourself, do you like the world the theory helps to build?
o Whose voice is heard/suppressed by the theory? Different theories give different people more chance to speak and be heard. For example, feminism allocates more space for female voices. If you are studying a concept such as impoverishment, you need to ask yourself which theory will help you to better understand impoverishment and allow poor people to be heard? Again, this is a political choice.
Scholte’s Ecelctic Theoretical Combination
- Liberalism: I (Scholte) believe that multiple actors are at play and rules and institutions matter.
- Realism: I believe the state matters and there is no sign that states will disappear. However, I do not believe that states still resemble the Westphalian model.
- Marxism: I believe that capitalism is a major historical force and class relations shape our world. However, I believe that the classical Marxist notes of class are far too simple and it is impossible to reduce everything to capitalism.
- Constructivism: I believe identities are important and not reducable to capitalist relations. However, I do not believe that power is absent in the process.
- Poststructuralism: I believe that structures of knowledge and life-worlds have a real importance in social life. However, I do not believe that globalization is the same as westernization.
- Feminism: I believe that the gender question is valid but it is also important to ask questions of race, sexuality, etc.
Assessing Globalization
- Is globalization good or bad? This can be assessed by examining a sevenfold normative framework that highlights the values of ecological integrity, material well-being, distributive justice, cultural vibrancy, democratic self-determination, social peace and moral decency.
- Ecological Integrity
o Globalization is often seen as destructive leading to pollution, the depletion of natural resources including the stratospheric ozone and biodiversity and climate change.
o However, globalization has provided a context for global environmental movements and discourses.
o General challenge: How can we promote and secure eco-sustainability in a more global world?
- Material Well-Being
o Many liberals contend that globalization has increased efficiencies and well-being in the aggregate.
o Marxists argue that there is a link between globalization and impoverishment as manifested in malnourishment, illiteracy, poor sanitation, etc.
o General challenge: How can we secure material well-being in a more global world?
- Distributive Justice
o Is globalization more just? In general, urban areas and capitalist classes have reaped more benefits from globalization.
o Members of the Alter-Globalization movement argue that more just outcomes could occur if the course and manifestations of globalization were altered. In other words, policy choices make a difference.
o General challenge: How can we achieve distributive justice in a more global world?
- Cultural Vibrancy
o Globalization does not result in cultural homogenization. Both cultural destructions and innovations occur.
o Some argue that globalization is responsible for cultural diversity losses, spiritual poverty, fundamentalism as well as the violence of “othering.”
o General challenge: How can we preserve cultural diversity and vibrancy in a more global world?
- Democratic Self-Determination
o Globalization has created possibilities for the increase of a global civil society. In other words, some democratic liveliness has accompanied globalization.
o However, globalization has lead to democratic deficits as well. Most individuals don’t feel as though they have any global power.
o General challenge: How can we secure public participation and public control in a more global world?
- Social Peace
o Some theorists, specifically liberals, contend that globalization creates a more peaceful world.
o But intimacy can breed violence. Globalization doesn’t automatically create a more peaceful world as evidence by arms proliferation, warfare and terrorism.
o General challenge: How can we develop community and solidarity in a more global world?
- Moral Decency
o In many ways, globalization has promoted humanitarianism. For example, the tremendous outpouring of support and aid for the victims of the tsunami in 2004 demonstrated that people feel connected to and responsible for others.
o However, there remains a relative lack of compassion for suffering in today’s global community.
o General challenge: How can we promote moral decency in a more global world?
The Bottom Line
- If you are looking for a better world, it all depends on the policy choices you make.
Jan Aart Scholte
Opening note: Today we will discuss normative concerns regarding globalization. Again, these concerns are both political and controversial.
Review: Yesterday we discussed six analytical theories that seek to explain globalization. These theories include: liberalism, political realism, Marxism, constructivism, poststructuralism and feminism. Each of these theories looks at globalization in terms of different issues, actors, structures and processes. Because so many theoretical explanations exist, theory is one of the most difficult things to pin down. Of course, without theory, you are lost. Theory tells you what evidence to collect and the causal connections between data. Thus, it is imperative to consider theory.
How do you choose?
- Here are five criteria that you can use to select a theory.
o Does the theory have logical coherence? A viable theory must hold together in its own terms, this is why it is so difficult to pick and choose between theories. Unfortunately, all of the explanatory theories presented have logical coherence. Therefore, this criterion is not of much help.
o Is it possible to empirically verify the theory? In other words, is it possible to relate the theory to concrete experiences and conditions? Unfortunately, this criterion is also not very helpful since all theories presented can be applied to concrete conditions. For example, it is possible to apply every theory to the upcoming G20 summit.
o Does the theory stand up to counterfactual questioning? Counterfactual question is a process of imagining outcomes in the absence of the theory. If the same outcome could not occur without your theory, the theory works. For example, imagine that capitalism did not exist and ask yourself if globalization would have occurred. If no, Marxism is a good explanatory theory for globalization.
o Does the theory promote desirable outcomes? The truth is not separate from reality. Theory and practice are interrelated. The theory you adopt has political consequences. During the Cold War, political realism was dominant. Many contend that political realism was a part of the Cold War. When the Cold War ended, realist theories subsided. Thus you need to ask yourself, do you like the world the theory helps to build?
o Whose voice is heard/suppressed by the theory? Different theories give different people more chance to speak and be heard. For example, feminism allocates more space for female voices. If you are studying a concept such as impoverishment, you need to ask yourself which theory will help you to better understand impoverishment and allow poor people to be heard? Again, this is a political choice.
Scholte’s Ecelctic Theoretical Combination
- Liberalism: I (Scholte) believe that multiple actors are at play and rules and institutions matter.
- Realism: I believe the state matters and there is no sign that states will disappear. However, I do not believe that states still resemble the Westphalian model.
- Marxism: I believe that capitalism is a major historical force and class relations shape our world. However, I believe that the classical Marxist notes of class are far too simple and it is impossible to reduce everything to capitalism.
- Constructivism: I believe identities are important and not reducable to capitalist relations. However, I do not believe that power is absent in the process.
- Poststructuralism: I believe that structures of knowledge and life-worlds have a real importance in social life. However, I do not believe that globalization is the same as westernization.
- Feminism: I believe that the gender question is valid but it is also important to ask questions of race, sexuality, etc.
Assessing Globalization
- Is globalization good or bad? This can be assessed by examining a sevenfold normative framework that highlights the values of ecological integrity, material well-being, distributive justice, cultural vibrancy, democratic self-determination, social peace and moral decency.
- Ecological Integrity
o Globalization is often seen as destructive leading to pollution, the depletion of natural resources including the stratospheric ozone and biodiversity and climate change.
o However, globalization has provided a context for global environmental movements and discourses.
o General challenge: How can we promote and secure eco-sustainability in a more global world?
- Material Well-Being
o Many liberals contend that globalization has increased efficiencies and well-being in the aggregate.
o Marxists argue that there is a link between globalization and impoverishment as manifested in malnourishment, illiteracy, poor sanitation, etc.
o General challenge: How can we secure material well-being in a more global world?
- Distributive Justice
o Is globalization more just? In general, urban areas and capitalist classes have reaped more benefits from globalization.
o Members of the Alter-Globalization movement argue that more just outcomes could occur if the course and manifestations of globalization were altered. In other words, policy choices make a difference.
o General challenge: How can we achieve distributive justice in a more global world?
- Cultural Vibrancy
o Globalization does not result in cultural homogenization. Both cultural destructions and innovations occur.
o Some argue that globalization is responsible for cultural diversity losses, spiritual poverty, fundamentalism as well as the violence of “othering.”
o General challenge: How can we preserve cultural diversity and vibrancy in a more global world?
- Democratic Self-Determination
o Globalization has created possibilities for the increase of a global civil society. In other words, some democratic liveliness has accompanied globalization.
o However, globalization has lead to democratic deficits as well. Most individuals don’t feel as though they have any global power.
o General challenge: How can we secure public participation and public control in a more global world?
- Social Peace
o Some theorists, specifically liberals, contend that globalization creates a more peaceful world.
o But intimacy can breed violence. Globalization doesn’t automatically create a more peaceful world as evidence by arms proliferation, warfare and terrorism.
o General challenge: How can we develop community and solidarity in a more global world?
- Moral Decency
o In many ways, globalization has promoted humanitarianism. For example, the tremendous outpouring of support and aid for the victims of the tsunami in 2004 demonstrated that people feel connected to and responsible for others.
o However, there remains a relative lack of compassion for suffering in today’s global community.
o General challenge: How can we promote moral decency in a more global world?
The Bottom Line
- If you are looking for a better world, it all depends on the policy choices you make.
Wednesday, September 9, 2009
"An Introduction to the Global" (Lecture B)
Lecture #2b: “An Introduction to the Global”
Jan Aart Scholte
Opening note: Today we will discuss analytical theories that explain the development of globalization. These explanations are controversial thus we will discuss a number of perspectives and how to choose between them.
Theoretical Explanations of Globalization
- Liberalism(s)
- Political Realism(s)
- Marxism(s)
- Constructivism(s)
- Poststructuralism(s)
- Feminism(s)
Metatheoretical Issues
- The goal is to identify different positions on core theories. We will do this by comparing and contrasting five metatheoretical issues underlying each theoretical explanation.
o Central issue- What issue is considered most important to each theoretical explanation of globalization?
o Material vs. Ideational- Is the theory derived from something tangible, ie. material, or something intangible, ie. ideational?
o Key Actors- Who is involved in the process of globalization?
o Social Structures- What patterns of social relations determine globalization?
o Historical Process- Are there patterns of social development over time that determine globalization?
- If you are going to understand the consequences of globalization, you need to understand the forces behind globalization.
- Note: Each theory has logical coherence. That is, it makes sense in its own terms.
Liberalism(s)
- Central Issue(s)→ Globalization is a progression towards economic welfare and political liberty.
- Material vs. Ideational→ Material in the form of technology and market forces
- Key Actor(s) → Liberals take a multi-actor view of social reality and contend that all of the following play a role: firms, civil society, governance bodies, mass media, etc.
- Social Structure(s) → Rules and regulatory institutions such as the UN and ICANN enable globalization.
- Historical Process(es) → Human society will progress towards greater modernization/development.
Political Realism(s)
- Central Issue(s)→ Globalization is the result of interstate struggles for power.
- Material vs. Ideational→ Material resources are deployed in power struggles.
- Key Actor(s) → Territorially sovereign states
- Social Structure(s) → Polarities
o Bipolarity- occurred during the Cold War, U.S. and Soviet Union
o Unipolarity- post Cold War, U.S. dominance
o Multipolarity- occurring today
- Historical Process(es) → Balance of power
Marxism(s)
- Central Issue(s)→ Globalization is determined by the mode of production and its transformation.
- Material vs. Ideational→ Material. This is a theory of political economy
- Key Actor(s) → Firms, corporations, governments, social movements
- Social Structure(s) → Capitalism and the struggle against it
- Historical Process(es) → Class struggle which leads to the transformation of the modes of production
Constructivism(s)
- Central Issue(s)→ Globalization is the product of the ways people communicate with each and talk about the world. These communications determine being, becoming and belonging in society. For example, diasporas communicate with each other to construct an identity.
- Material vs. Ideational→ Ideational. Ideas have a reality and causal significance and are not just a reflection of material relationships.
- Key Actor(s) → Individuals
- Social Structure(s) → Norms and identities
- Historical Process(es) → Inter-subjective communication or self discovery
Poststructuralism(s)
- Central Issue(s)→ Globalization is the assertions and suppression of life-worlds including values and perceived realities.
- Material vs. Ideational→ Ideational dynamics are key and include discourse and knowledge.
- Key Actor(s) → Disciplinary agents such as governments, corporations, bosses, professors and resistance groups such as environmentalists, religious revivalists and indigenous peoples.
- Social Structure(s) → Secularism, techno-scientific rationalism, anthropocentrism, instrumentalism (aka imperial social forces)
- Historical Process(es) → Discipline and subversion
Feminism(s)
- Central Issue(s)→ Globalization is a manifestation of gender relations.
- Material vs. Ideational→ Both, depending on who you talk to
- Key Actor(s) → Men and women
- Social Structure(s) → Patriarchy, masculinism
- Historical Process(es) → The emancipation of women
Jan Aart Scholte
Opening note: Today we will discuss analytical theories that explain the development of globalization. These explanations are controversial thus we will discuss a number of perspectives and how to choose between them.
Theoretical Explanations of Globalization
- Liberalism(s)
- Political Realism(s)
- Marxism(s)
- Constructivism(s)
- Poststructuralism(s)
- Feminism(s)
Metatheoretical Issues
- The goal is to identify different positions on core theories. We will do this by comparing and contrasting five metatheoretical issues underlying each theoretical explanation.
o Central issue- What issue is considered most important to each theoretical explanation of globalization?
o Material vs. Ideational- Is the theory derived from something tangible, ie. material, or something intangible, ie. ideational?
o Key Actors- Who is involved in the process of globalization?
o Social Structures- What patterns of social relations determine globalization?
o Historical Process- Are there patterns of social development over time that determine globalization?
- If you are going to understand the consequences of globalization, you need to understand the forces behind globalization.
- Note: Each theory has logical coherence. That is, it makes sense in its own terms.
Liberalism(s)
- Central Issue(s)→ Globalization is a progression towards economic welfare and political liberty.
- Material vs. Ideational→ Material in the form of technology and market forces
- Key Actor(s) → Liberals take a multi-actor view of social reality and contend that all of the following play a role: firms, civil society, governance bodies, mass media, etc.
- Social Structure(s) → Rules and regulatory institutions such as the UN and ICANN enable globalization.
- Historical Process(es) → Human society will progress towards greater modernization/development.
Political Realism(s)
- Central Issue(s)→ Globalization is the result of interstate struggles for power.
- Material vs. Ideational→ Material resources are deployed in power struggles.
- Key Actor(s) → Territorially sovereign states
- Social Structure(s) → Polarities
o Bipolarity- occurred during the Cold War, U.S. and Soviet Union
o Unipolarity- post Cold War, U.S. dominance
o Multipolarity- occurring today
- Historical Process(es) → Balance of power
Marxism(s)
- Central Issue(s)→ Globalization is determined by the mode of production and its transformation.
- Material vs. Ideational→ Material. This is a theory of political economy
- Key Actor(s) → Firms, corporations, governments, social movements
- Social Structure(s) → Capitalism and the struggle against it
- Historical Process(es) → Class struggle which leads to the transformation of the modes of production
Constructivism(s)
- Central Issue(s)→ Globalization is the product of the ways people communicate with each and talk about the world. These communications determine being, becoming and belonging in society. For example, diasporas communicate with each other to construct an identity.
- Material vs. Ideational→ Ideational. Ideas have a reality and causal significance and are not just a reflection of material relationships.
- Key Actor(s) → Individuals
- Social Structure(s) → Norms and identities
- Historical Process(es) → Inter-subjective communication or self discovery
Poststructuralism(s)
- Central Issue(s)→ Globalization is the assertions and suppression of life-worlds including values and perceived realities.
- Material vs. Ideational→ Ideational dynamics are key and include discourse and knowledge.
- Key Actor(s) → Disciplinary agents such as governments, corporations, bosses, professors and resistance groups such as environmentalists, religious revivalists and indigenous peoples.
- Social Structure(s) → Secularism, techno-scientific rationalism, anthropocentrism, instrumentalism (aka imperial social forces)
- Historical Process(es) → Discipline and subversion
Feminism(s)
- Central Issue(s)→ Globalization is a manifestation of gender relations.
- Material vs. Ideational→ Both, depending on who you talk to
- Key Actor(s) → Men and women
- Social Structure(s) → Patriarchy, masculinism
- Historical Process(es) → The emancipation of women
"An Introduction to the Global" (Lecture A)
Lecture #2a: “An Introduction to the Global”
Jan Aart Scholte
Definitions
- “Global studies” is a relatively new concept that began less than 20 years ago.
- There are 5 dimensions of globalization and globality:
o Internationalization- increasing transactions between and interdependence amongst people living in different countries (objection: This concept already exists!)
o Liberalization- the removal of official barriers such as tariffs to transactions between countries (objection: human resources have not been liberalized; people still need visas and passports)
o Universalization- various objects and experiences spread to all corners of humanity (objection: people don’t experience things in the same way)
o Westernization- also known as the new imperialism and modernization, this is the spread of western culture to the world (objection: there is also Islamic globalization, Buddhist globalization, etc.)
o Deterritorialization- there are social spaces and activities that have no geographical address such as the internet and currency exchanges (objection- This was Scholte’s definition of globalization in the first addition of his book. He has since changed his mind.)
o Transplanetary social connectivity- people are linked in many complex ways despite geography. This relationship is “new” because of its intensity, scale, impact, velocity, frequency and complexity. This modern form of globalization began in the middle of the 20th century.
- Every major human language has a word for globalization including Swahili which incorporated a term for globalization in 2003.
- Power relations are inherent in globalization. However, people disagree as to what these power relations are.
Manifestations
- Material (concrete) communications (internet, fax, telephones), travel, financial transactions (loans, bank accounts, currencies, credit, SDRs, stock exchanges), diseases (SARs, HIV, H1N1), ecological events and conditions (climate change, global warming), military affairs (wars, WMDs, satellites), laws and institutions of governance (UN, IMF, WTO, ICANN which governs the internet)
- Mental (ideational) globalization is in our minds, stories, symbols, etc.
If’s And’s and But’s
- The intensity, velocity, complexity, etc. of globalization has qualitatively increased since the middle of the 20th century however there are 8 qualifications:
o Globalization has a longer history in terms of economics, religion, disease, etc.
o Globalization is not everything and everywhere.
o Territory, territorial spaces, national identity and diasporas remain important.
o Regionalization (EU, African Unon, NAFTA) is also a form of social transplanetary connectivity.
o Globalization doesn’t entail cultural homogenization. New cultural forms are being created and cultural diversity is maintained.
o Globalization is unevenly spread in terms of complexity, velocity, etc.
o Globalization’s costs and benefits are unequally distributed. For example, some people are more harmed by climate change, income distributions between countries and within countries has increased, there are still significant differences between countries, classes, genders, races, generations, etc. Because of this, political struggle occur. Global relations are globally infused, steeped in power relations and struggles that are both implicit and explicit.
o Because globalization is political, agency and policy choices are vital. In other words, globalization is not pre-ordained; choices must be made. The forces behind globalization are difficult to resist but the ways in which we experience globalization are dependent on our choices and actions.
Jan Aart Scholte
Definitions
- “Global studies” is a relatively new concept that began less than 20 years ago.
- There are 5 dimensions of globalization and globality:
o Internationalization- increasing transactions between and interdependence amongst people living in different countries (objection: This concept already exists!)
o Liberalization- the removal of official barriers such as tariffs to transactions between countries (objection: human resources have not been liberalized; people still need visas and passports)
o Universalization- various objects and experiences spread to all corners of humanity (objection: people don’t experience things in the same way)
o Westernization- also known as the new imperialism and modernization, this is the spread of western culture to the world (objection: there is also Islamic globalization, Buddhist globalization, etc.)
o Deterritorialization- there are social spaces and activities that have no geographical address such as the internet and currency exchanges (objection- This was Scholte’s definition of globalization in the first addition of his book. He has since changed his mind.)
o Transplanetary social connectivity- people are linked in many complex ways despite geography. This relationship is “new” because of its intensity, scale, impact, velocity, frequency and complexity. This modern form of globalization began in the middle of the 20th century.
- Every major human language has a word for globalization including Swahili which incorporated a term for globalization in 2003.
- Power relations are inherent in globalization. However, people disagree as to what these power relations are.
Manifestations
- Material (concrete) communications (internet, fax, telephones), travel, financial transactions (loans, bank accounts, currencies, credit, SDRs, stock exchanges), diseases (SARs, HIV, H1N1), ecological events and conditions (climate change, global warming), military affairs (wars, WMDs, satellites), laws and institutions of governance (UN, IMF, WTO, ICANN which governs the internet)
- Mental (ideational) globalization is in our minds, stories, symbols, etc.
If’s And’s and But’s
- The intensity, velocity, complexity, etc. of globalization has qualitatively increased since the middle of the 20th century however there are 8 qualifications:
o Globalization has a longer history in terms of economics, religion, disease, etc.
o Globalization is not everything and everywhere.
o Territory, territorial spaces, national identity and diasporas remain important.
o Regionalization (EU, African Unon, NAFTA) is also a form of social transplanetary connectivity.
o Globalization doesn’t entail cultural homogenization. New cultural forms are being created and cultural diversity is maintained.
o Globalization is unevenly spread in terms of complexity, velocity, etc.
o Globalization’s costs and benefits are unequally distributed. For example, some people are more harmed by climate change, income distributions between countries and within countries has increased, there are still significant differences between countries, classes, genders, races, generations, etc. Because of this, political struggle occur. Global relations are globally infused, steeped in power relations and struggles that are both implicit and explicit.
o Because globalization is political, agency and policy choices are vital. In other words, globalization is not pre-ordained; choices must be made. The forces behind globalization are difficult to resist but the ways in which we experience globalization are dependent on our choices and actions.
"Why Global Studies?"
Lecture #1: “Why Global Studies?: An Interdisciplinary Approach”
Per Knutsson, Human Ecology and Social Anthropology
What is global studies at Gothenburg University?
- It is a new program.
- It is a unique combination of social science disciplines
- It is a new and open field of knowledge for you to define.
- It is an international environment.
- It prioritizes research and education.
Global Studies as the integration of interdisciplinary disciplines
- Global Studies integrates: social anthropology, development studies, global gender studies, regional studies, human rights, human ecology, international relations
Two examples of the need for interdisciplinary global studies
- Genocide in Rwanda, most explanations of the Rwandan genocide focus on one discipline such as media, conflict resolution, history, etc.
- Global studies examines how different disciplines are linked and can explain social phenomena such as genocide
- Climate Change, there has been a strong natural science focus on climate change for years.
- Recently, social sciences are becoming involved.
- The increased involvement of social sciences is due to a growing awareness that climate change impacts both human systems and natural systems.
Defining interdisciplinarity
- Multidisciplinarity is the combination of disciplines without integration.
- Interdisciplinarity is the integration of disciplines through cooperation and discourse.
- Transdisciplinarity involves the integration of not only academic disciplines but social actors such as civil servants, business people, etc.
Different aspects of interdisciplinarity
- General knowledge, general knowledge/daily life are inherently interdisciplinary
- Research, this occurs when different disciplines tackle a common problem
- Education
- Application, this is an attempt to solve a problem
- Organization
- Identity, as an identity, interdisciplinarity, threatens disciplinarity
- Theory, there are very few interdisciplinarity theories
Different interdisciplinary ambitions
- Broadening, adding perspectives or ideas
- Reconfiguration, effecting change
- Synthesis, bringing things together concretely to create a solution
Why interdisciplinarity?
- There are two forms of knowledge production, accumulation and integration
- Accumulation, this is the traditional view of knowledge
- Integration, this is a complement to accumulation provided by interdisciplinarity
Common critiques against interdisciplinarity
- Lack of specialization
- Lack of in-depth knowledge
- Lack of theory
- Lack of methodology
- Lack of traditions
- Lack of quality criteria, how do you know if the research is valid?
The case for interdisciplinarity
- Creative breakthroughs
- Outside perspective
- Lessens cross disciplinary oversights
- Fills disciplinary cracks
- Addresses complex and/or practical problems
- Broadening of the definition of quality control
Transdisciplinary research: an answer to the shifting knowledge landscape
- The knowledge economy, knowledge is highly valuable
- The environmental imperative, transdisciplinary research leads to solutions
- Engaged populace, the ivory tower is crumbling
Is interdisciplinarity always good? No.
- Interdisciplinarity is a complement not a replacement for disciplinary research, education, etc.
Per Knutsson, Human Ecology and Social Anthropology
What is global studies at Gothenburg University?
- It is a new program.
- It is a unique combination of social science disciplines
- It is a new and open field of knowledge for you to define.
- It is an international environment.
- It prioritizes research and education.
Global Studies as the integration of interdisciplinary disciplines
- Global Studies integrates: social anthropology, development studies, global gender studies, regional studies, human rights, human ecology, international relations
Two examples of the need for interdisciplinary global studies
- Genocide in Rwanda, most explanations of the Rwandan genocide focus on one discipline such as media, conflict resolution, history, etc.
- Global studies examines how different disciplines are linked and can explain social phenomena such as genocide
- Climate Change, there has been a strong natural science focus on climate change for years.
- Recently, social sciences are becoming involved.
- The increased involvement of social sciences is due to a growing awareness that climate change impacts both human systems and natural systems.
Defining interdisciplinarity
- Multidisciplinarity is the combination of disciplines without integration.
- Interdisciplinarity is the integration of disciplines through cooperation and discourse.
- Transdisciplinarity involves the integration of not only academic disciplines but social actors such as civil servants, business people, etc.
Different aspects of interdisciplinarity
- General knowledge, general knowledge/daily life are inherently interdisciplinary
- Research, this occurs when different disciplines tackle a common problem
- Education
- Application, this is an attempt to solve a problem
- Organization
- Identity, as an identity, interdisciplinarity, threatens disciplinarity
- Theory, there are very few interdisciplinarity theories
Different interdisciplinary ambitions
- Broadening, adding perspectives or ideas
- Reconfiguration, effecting change
- Synthesis, bringing things together concretely to create a solution
Why interdisciplinarity?
- There are two forms of knowledge production, accumulation and integration
- Accumulation, this is the traditional view of knowledge
- Integration, this is a complement to accumulation provided by interdisciplinarity
Common critiques against interdisciplinarity
- Lack of specialization
- Lack of in-depth knowledge
- Lack of theory
- Lack of methodology
- Lack of traditions
- Lack of quality criteria, how do you know if the research is valid?
The case for interdisciplinarity
- Creative breakthroughs
- Outside perspective
- Lessens cross disciplinary oversights
- Fills disciplinary cracks
- Addresses complex and/or practical problems
- Broadening of the definition of quality control
Transdisciplinary research: an answer to the shifting knowledge landscape
- The knowledge economy, knowledge is highly valuable
- The environmental imperative, transdisciplinary research leads to solutions
- Engaged populace, the ivory tower is crumbling
Is interdisciplinarity always good? No.
- Interdisciplinarity is a complement not a replacement for disciplinary research, education, etc.
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