GS2321: Ontology and Epistemology

Erik Andersson, International Relations

What is the nature of research?
- To do research is to produce meaning and knowledge.

- Research is expensive but is accorded a high status in society.

-Why then do universities invest so much money in research?
● Research appeals to certain principles including openness with regard to sources, methodology, and theoretical framework; accessibility to criticism which helps to determine reliability and validity; and collective ownership of the information and conclusions.
● These principles are upheld so that research can contribute to "development".
● Research happens within a contextof epistemology and ontology.

Ontology
- The Oxford English Dictionary defines ontology as, "the branch of metaphysics dealing with the nature of being."

-Ontology varies between academic disciplines.
● In international relations, for example, some say that the primary entity is actors while others such as nation-states while other contend that it is structures.
● International relations research must relate to these ontologies.

-Depending on your adopted onotology, you will produce different research.
● History: Imminence ↔ Intention
● Identity: Primordialism ↔ Constructivism (J. Butler)
● Philosophy: Dualism (mind/matter) ↔ Holism

Epistemology
- The Oxford English Dictionary defines epistemology as, "the theory of knowledge especially with regard to methods and validity."

Qualitative ↔ Quantitative Epistemologies
- The divisions between qualitative and quantitative epistemologies was the subject of intense academic debate for centuries. However, now, most agree that both are imporatnt and scientific.
● In other words, one cannot understand the social phenomena of divorce without interviews (qualitative research) and statistical analysis (quantitative research).
● Most also agree that you can't engage in quantiative analysis without first thinking about meaning and ideas.
● The reverse is also true; qualitative analysis necessitates quantitative analysis.
● Thus, qualitative research can be and is often conducted on the foundation of a quantative notion.
● See more information see Alvesson and Deetz.

Subjectivity ↔ Objectivity
- Can a researcher divorce themselves from their research and be objective? Yes and no.
● A subjective researcher can attempt to be more objective by being open and transparent about their biases.

- Is there any pure/objective "data"?
● "Data" is always approaced through onological and epistemological lenses.
● "Data" in the social sciences is usally constructed and interpreted according to specified frameworks.

Induction (discovery) ↔ Deduction (hypothesis testing)
- Pure induction does not exist but is related to ontology, epistemology, and worldview.

- These are useful general approaches.

Paradigms
- Paradigms are small, scientific discourses in regard to how experiements are conducted and how research is done.

- Discourse is a similar concept.

- Different paradigms have different languages.
● Language itself is not neutral and, as a result, must be considered and analyzed.
● Economists of a certain kind speak and write in specific ways.

- Language relates to and is influneced by ontologies and epistemologies.

- Language is what we use to tell the "truth" and express and interpret "data".
● "Truth" is always preliminary to some and always valid to others.

Methodology
- The Oxford English Dictionary defines methodology as, "the science of method or body of methods used in a particular branch of science."

- It is important to distinguish between empirical and analytical methods.
● For example, in your thesis, it is useful to specify that you did one thing in the field and something else when you got home because...

Coherence
-A thesis must be coherent on all levels!
● In other words, don't mix ontological concepts with incompatible epistemological procedures.

-Coherence is created through theory.
● Theory helps the research with positioning, analytical "tools"/ framework, and contribution.
● Positioning is done through literature review and details how your research will contribute to and build upon previous research. (It is important to express agreement as well as disagreement with previous research.)
● Analytical "tools"/ framework can be conceptual and eclectic in which you take bits and pieces from established theories in order to construct your own as well as to define variables.
● Contribution helps show validity, reliability, etc. and outlines how your research alters the ways in which we see the world.